T& 


V 


AN    ITALIAN    GRAMMAR 


WITH   EXERCISES 


BY 


MARY    VANCE    YOUNG 


<i 


Professor  of  Romance  Languages,  Mount  Holyoke  College 


UNIVERSITY 


NEW  YORK 

HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 

1904 


1 


1 


•  •     •  •, 
•       •  * 


«     . .  •    •  •    •    • 


Copyright,  1904, 

BY 

HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 


ROBERT   DRUMMOND,    PRINTER,    NEW   YORK 


PREFACE. 

This  book  is  intended  for  class  use  and  reference. 
Practical  utility  has  been  considered  more  than  harmony 
of.  design.  This  will  explain  what  might  be  taken  for  a 
lack  of  plan.  For  instance,  the  general  rules  for  the 
inflection  of  adjectives  being  given  in  the  first  chapter, 
the  chapter  on  adjectives  is  placed  after  those  on  verbs 
and  pronouns.  In  order  that  regular  verbal  inflection 
may  be  thoroughly  learned  before  irregular  forms  are 
taken  up  the  chapter  on  irregular  verbs  is  rather  widely 
separated  from  that  on  the  regular,  and  for  the  same 
reason  the  regular  conjugations  are  given  before  the 
auxiliaries  (the  present  tenses  of  the  principal  auxiliaries 
being  familiar  to  the  pupil  from  the  first  lesson) ;  the 
chapter  on  the  modification  of  nouns  by  means  of  pre- 
fixes and  suffixes  does  not  follow  that  on  nouns,  and 
numerals  are  treated  of  quite  at  the  end  of  the  book. 
Numerals  belong  rather  to  the  dictionary  than  to  the 
grammar  and  may  conveniently  be  learned  in  connection 
with  reading  or  oral  exercises.  This  chapter,  as  well 
as  that  on  prepositions,  is  intended  largely  for  reference. 

Although  every  part  of  the  book  has  been  independently 
worked  out,  it  in  no  way  claims  to  be  a  work  of  investiga- 
tion. Among  grammars  consulted  in  its  preparation 
should  be  mentioned  Moise's  Regole  ed  Osservazioni  della 
Lingua   Italiana,    from    which    material    for    the    lists    of 

iii 


iv  PREFACE. 

prepositions,  etc.,  has  been  drawn,  and  Mariotti's  Gram- 
mar; and  for  certain  parts  Meyer-Liibke's,  Grandgent's, 
Sauer's,  and  Benelli-Marucelli's  have  also  given  hints. 
The  dictionaries  of  Rigutini-Fanfani  and  of  Edgren, 
Josselyn's  Etude  sur  la  phouetique  italienne ,  and  the  section 
on  the  Italian  language  in  Grober's  Grundriss  der  Romani- 
schen  Philologie  have  been  helpful. 

The  author  returns  thanks  to  Mr.  T.  Comba,  who  furnished 
the  material  for  several  exercises  and  read  most  of  the 
book  in  manuscript;  to  Mr.  Freeman  Josselyn,  Jr.,  who 
read  the  chapter  on  phonetics  and  made  valuable  sug- 
gestions; to  Mr.  Grandgent  and  Messrs.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 
by  whose  permission  a  device  for  representing  to  the  eye 
the  irregularities  of  certain  verbs,  similar  to  that  em- 
ployed in  Mr.  Grandgent's  Grammar  was  adopted;  to 
Mr.  Ramsey,  by  whose  permission  the  paragraphs  on 
the  correspondences  between  Italian  and  English  words 
have  been  borrowed  from  his  Spanish  Grammar;  and  to 
Messrs.  Fraser  and  Squair,  whose  French  Grammar  fur- 
nished the  model  for  No.  190  seq.  in  the  chapter  on  prepo- 
sitions. 

The  material  for  the  exercises  has  been  gathered  from 
various  sources.  In  that  taken  from  an  Italian  school 
history  no  responsibility  for  facts  is  assumed.  Only 
a  few  oral  exercises  are  furnished,  since  the  teacher  will 
usually  prefer  to  make  his  own  from  the  vocabulary  in 
the  exercises. 

The  author  hopes  that  this  Grammar  may  be  useful  to 
her  Romanic  fellow  workers,  and  that  they  in  return  will 
kindly  point  out  its  defects. 

Mary  Vance  Young. 

Mount  Holyoke  College,  September,  1903. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Pronunciation,  Orthography,  and  Graphic  Signs i 

CHAPTERS 

I.  First  Principles.     Articles  and  Nouns 27 

II.  Articles  with    Prepositions.   Syntax   of   the   Ar- 
ticle    29 

III.  Nouns,  their  Gender  and  Number 37 

IV.  Regular  Verbs 48 

V.  Auxiliary  Verbs 56 

VI.   Personal  Pronouns.     Disjunctive  Personal  Pro- 
nouns   65 

VII.  Conjunctive  Personal  Pronouns.  Reflexive  Verbs  72 

VIII.  Adjectives  and  Participles 82 

IX.   Possessives 98 

X.  Demonstratives.    Relatives.    Interrogatives.    In- 
definites   102 

XT.   Prefixes  and  Suffixes 111 

XII.   Irregular  Verbs.     Impersonal  Verbs.     Defective 

Verbs 116 

XIII.  Prepositions.     Dependent  Infinites 123 

XIV.  Conjunctions.     Moods  and  Tenses 142 

XV.  Adverbs.     Numerals  and  Numerical  Values.     In- 
terjections    156 

Irregular  Verbs  by  Conjugations 171 

Alphabetical  Table  of  Irregular  Verbs 198 

Exercises 207 

Italian-English  Vocabulary 244 

English-Italian  Vocabulary 258 

Index 269 

v 


UNIVE  .  , 

ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


PRONUNCIATION  ORTHOGRAPHY,  AND  GRAPHIC 

SIGNS. 

i.  The  following  tables  contain  all  the  sounds  ordi- 
narily used  in  spoken  Italian,  classified  according  to 
the  locality  and  to  the  manner  of  their  production. 

(a)  Vowels  are  distinguished  with  reference  to  their 
locality  only,  as  front  and  back  vowels.  (/?)  Consonants 
are  classified  (a)  according  to  locality,  as:  (i)  bi- 
labials,  formed  by  the  upper  and  lower  lips;  (2)  labio- 
dentals, formed  by  the  lower  lip  and  the  upper  teeth; 

(3)  linguo -dentals,   by  the  tongue  and  upper  teeth; 

(4)  front-palatals,  by  the  tip  of  the  tongue  against 
the  front  part  of  the  hard  palate;  (5)  back-palatals, 
by  the  ridge  of  the  tongue  against  the  back  part  of 
the  hard  palate;  (6)  gutturals,  by  the  ridge  of  the 
tongue  against  the  soft  palate;  (b)  according  to 
manner  of  production,  as:  (1)  stops,  to  form  which 
the  breath  is  stopped  by  the  actual  touching  or  closing 
of  the  organs,  as  in  p\  (2)  continuants,  in  which  the 
breath  is  only  squeezed,  not  stopped,  as  in  /;  (3) 
liquids,  which  differ  from  other  continuants  in  that 
they  partake  more  of  the  character  of  vowels,  as  /. 
These  classes  of  consonants  must  also  be  subdivided 
into  voiceless,  in  the  production  of  which  the  vocal 
cords  do  not  vibrate,  and  voiced,  in  which  they  do 
vibrate.  For  instance,  p  is  the  voiceless  bi-labial 
stop,  i.e.,  in  forming  it  the  breath  is  stopped  by  the 


' ,  - 


\  ,■  :  :  .;  i'italian  grammar. 


t  <    >  i 


//touching 'of;  the  upper  'against  the  lower  lip,  the  vocal 
' '  cOfds  not  vibrating,'  and  b  is  the  same  with  vibration  of 
the  vocal  cords.1  An  Italian  key-word  is  given  for  each 
sound,  the  letter  representing  the  sound  in  question 
being  printed  in  heavy  type.  The  approximate  English 
correspondent  in  each  case  is  given  below  (5,  12  sq.2). 


VOWELS. 


Front  Vowels. 

1  (inni) 
i  (inni) 

e  (fremere) 
e  (fremere) 
§  (fremere) 
a  (ama) 
a  (ama) 


Back  Vowels. 
u  (una) 
u  (rumore) 
0  popolo) 
o  (popolo) 
'9  (popolo) 


CONSONANTS, 
(a)   Simple  Consonants. 


Bi-labial. 

Labio-dental. 

Linguo-dental. 

Voiceless. 

Voiced. 

Voiceless. 

Voiced. 

Voiceless. 

Voiced 

Stops 

Continuants.  .  .  . 
Liquids 

p (pena) 

b (babbo) 
u  (uomo) 

f  (fango) 
m  (mano) 

v (vero) 

t  (tento) 

d (donna) 

Front-palatal. 

Back-palatal. 

Guttural. 

Voiceless. 

Voiced. 

Voiceless. 

Voiced. 

Continuants 

Liquids 

s  (so) 

s  (rosa) 

n  (nina) 
1  (lotto) 
r  (rima) 

k  (corte) 

£  (gola) 

sh  (sciagura) 

j  (pieno) 

T  (taglio) 
fi  (nialigno) 

ng*  (vcngo) 

*  This  sound  can  as  yet  be  only  tentatively  classified. 

1  Any  simple  work  on  phonetics  may  serve  to  further  elucidate 
the  tables. 

2  Heavy-face  figures  refer  to  paragraphs. 


CONSONANTS. 


(b)   Compound  Consonants. 


Front-palatal. 

Voiceless. 

Voiced. 

c  (cielo) 
z  (zio) 

g (gente) 

z  (zelo) 

2.  These  thirty-six  sounds  are  graphically  repre- 
sented by  twenty-two  letters,  k,  w,  x,  and  y  not  occur- 
ring in  the  Italian  alphabet.  Otherwise  it  is  the  same 
as  the  English. 

3.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet  and  their  Italian 
names  are  as  follows: 


a  a 

g  S1 

n  §nne 

t    ti 

b  bi1 

h  acca 

0   9 

u  u 

c   ci 

■        • 

1    1 

P  Pi 

v  ve  or  vi 

d  di 

j    je  or  i  lungo 

q  cu 

z   zeta 

e  e 

1    §lle 

r    §rre 

f    effe 

m  e,mme 

s    §sse 

(a)  K,  x,  y,  w,  occurring  only  in  foreign  words,  are 
called  cappa,  iccase  or  ics,  ipsilon,  doppio  vu. 

(b)  The  names  of  the  letters  are  the  same  in  the  plural 
as  in  the  singular:   i  bi,  the  b's;   gli  a,  the  a's. 

(c)  The  gender  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  is  some- 
what variable,  but  in  general  a  and  e  and  the  consonant 
ending  in  a  and  e  are  feminine  (la  zeta,  "the  z" ;  l,§nne  =  la 
§nne  with  elision  of  the  a — "the  n"),  while  the  other  let- 
ters, i.e.,  i,  0,  u,  and  the  consonants  ending  in  i,  0,  or  n,  are 
masculine. 

4.  The  number  of  sounds  being  so  much  in  excess 
of  that  of  the  letters  used  to  represent  them,  it  is  evi- 

1  These  names  being  Italian  words,  the  pupil  should  refer  to  5 
and  12  sq.  before  attempting  to  pronounce  them. 


4  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

dent  that  one  character  must  be  used  to  represent 
more  than  one  sound.  The  Italian  orthography,  how- 
ever, is  much  more  nearly  phonetic  than  is  the  Eng- 
lish or  French,  and  with  care  and  instruction  every 
student  should  acquire  a  really  good  pronunciation 
of  the  language.  The  rules  given  below  (5  sq.)  will 
be  found  useful,  although  the  pupil  should  always 
bear  in  mind  that  the  comparisons  therein  made  with 
sounds  already  known  to  him  are  only  approximate,  no 
Italian  sound  being  quite  the  same  as  the  English  sound 
most  nearly  resembling  it.  The  sound  should  be 
learned  by  imitation.  The  teacher  is  therefore  advised 
to  pronounce  the  Italian  key-word  slowly,  the  pupil 
noting  carefully  his  pronunciation. 

VALUE  OF  THE  LETTERS  OF  THE  ALPHABET. 

(a)  Value  of  the  Vowels. 

5.  I  has  approximately  the  sounds  of  English  eel 
in  "meet". 

I  has  approximately  the  sounds  of  English  i  in 
11  pin",  or,  when  at  the  end  of  a  word  (as  in  poi),  of  y 
in  ' '  hurry  " . 2 

E,  called  "close  e",  has  approximately  the  sound 
of  English  a  in  "  mate".3 

E,  called  the  "open  e",  has  approximately  the 
sound  of  English  e  in  "  met". 

1  That  is,  of  the  first  part  of  the  ee  in  "meet".  This,  as  all 
English  vowels,  is  really  a  diphthong,  while  the  Italian  vowels 
are  pure. 

2  The  two  i's  will  not  be  graphically  distinguished  in  this  book; 
the  pupil  may  learn  them  by  ear  and  by  imitation.  The  first  i 
will  in  the  meantime  answer  all  purposes. 

3  That  is,  of  the  first  part  of  the  sound.     Cf.  above,  foot-note  1. 


1  > 


t  > 


VALUE   OF   THE  LETTERS   OF   THE   ALPHABET.  5 

A  has  approximately  the  sound  of  a  in  "  father". 

A  is  a  more  neutral  a  difficult  to  describe.  The 
pupil  may  at  first  content  himself  not  to  distinguish 
between  these  two  sounds.  Later  his  ear,  if  he  has 
the  apportunity  of  hearing  Italians  speak,  will  detect 
the  difference. 

9,  called  "open  o",  has  no  English  equivalent.  It 
is  a  sound  between  the  a  in  "  paw  "  and  the  o  in  "  pop 
nearly  that  given  in  parts  of  Maine  to  the  0  in  "  road 
"coat".  The  sound,  although  difficult  of  explana- 
tion, may  be  readily  learned  by  imitation. 

0,  called  "close  0",  has  approximately  the  sound 
of  o  in  "  pope". 

U  has  approximately  the  sound  of  00  in  "too". 

U  has  approximately  the  sound  of  00  in    'toot". 

Between  the  open  and  the  close  e,  the  open  and  the 
close  o,  there  is  an  intermediate  sound  which  the  stu- 
dent may  detect  by  ear  and  learn  by  imitation,  such 
subtle  shades  of  sounds  not  being  capable  of  defini- 
tion. 

6.  Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  the  vowel 
sounds,  produced  alone  and  in  the  order  given  in  para- 
graph 1 ,  beginning  with  i  and  going  down  the  left  side 
of  the  triangle,  then  up  the  right,  recede  continually 
and  regularly  in  the  mouth.  Therefore  the  i-e-a 
series  is  called  the  front,  the  a-o-u  the  back  series. 
From  a  to  u  the  lips  are  also  regularly  more  and  more 
rounded.1 

1  Mr.  Josselyn  (Etude  sur  la  phonetique  italienne,  p.  13)  for  this 
reason  calls  the  a-o-u  series  the  labial,  giving  to  the  i-e-a  series 
the  name  of  anterior.  His  anterior  therefore  =our  jro)it,  his  labial 
our  back  series. 


6  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

7.  All  vowels  as  well  as  all  consonantal  sounds 
are  produced  in  a  quicker,  more  energetic  manner  in 
Italian  than  in  English  (although  the  former  are  some- 
what less  energetic  than  the  French  vowels).  One 
must  really  work  harder  in  pronouncing  them. 

The  vowels  never  tend  to  become  neutral,  nor  do 
the  consonants  ever  take  after  them  a  neutral  vowel, 
as  is  the  case  in  English. 

This  is  what  gives  to  spoken  Italian  its  peculiarly 
staccato  effect. 

8.  The  only  real  difficulty  offered  by  the  vowels 
is  the  distinction  of  open  and  close  e  and  o. 

In  words  of  popular  development,  i.e.,  such  as  have 
always  been  a  part  of  the  spoken  language,  the  Latin 
e  or  1  is  represented  generally  in  Italian  by  an  e,  the 
Latin  e  or  ae  by  an  §,  6  or  u  by  0,  6  or  au  by  9. 

It  follows  that  accented  e  and  o  in  the  groups  1  ie 
and  uo  are  open: 

Pi§de,   foot  (<pedem);     buQno,  good    (<b6num). 

But:  godere,  to  enjoy  (<gaudere);  capello,  hair 
( <  capillum) ;  loro,  their  (<illorum);  volto,  face  (<vul- 
tum). 

MORE    SPECIAL    RULES    FOR    THE    QUALITY  OF    THE    VOWELS. 

9.  E  is  close: 

(1)  In  unaccented  syllables.2 

(2)  In  monosyllables,3  whether  standing  alone  or 
in  composition  with  other  words: 

1  The  first  element  in  these  groups  being  a  consonant,  they  can- 
not be  called  diphthongs.  See  28,  Rem.  (1),  also  table  of  conso- 
nants, where  the  i  is  registered  as  j,  the  u  as  w. 

2  This  e  is  really  medium  close,  but  for  practical  purposes  may 
be  regarded  as  close. 

3  Words  which  are  not  normally  monosyllabic  but  which  have 


VALUE  OF  THE  LETTERS  OF  THE  ALPHABET.    7 

Me,  me;  meco,  with  me  (a  compound  of  me  and  the 
preposition  con);    e,  and;    i   tre   re,  the  three  kings;    che, 

that,  which. 

Exceptions:  §,*  is;  §h!  (exclamation);  ch§,  nonsense!; 
re,  (musical  note);  be,  (imitation  of  the  bah  of  sheep). 
Also  words  of  foreign  origin;  as,  il  t§,  tea. 

(3)  In  oxytones  ending  in  a  vowel,2  which  vowel 
is  regularly  marked  by  the  grave  accent  (see  32  a) : 

Perche,  why,  because;   teme,  he  feared. 
Exceptions:     (a)    Proper     names;     as,     Mos§,     Moses; 
Giosu§,  Joshua. 

(b)  Nouns  of  foreign  origin3;  as,  caff§,  coffee;  canap§, 
sofa. 

(c)  The  interjections  ahime,  imm§,  ohim§;  also  cio§,4 
"that  is,  that  is  to  say". 

(4)  In  the  accented  ending  of  the  infinitive,  imper- 
fect indicative  and  subjunctive,  and  of  the  preterite 
indicative  of  -ere  and  of  '-ere  verbs.      (See  67  (2).) 

(5)  In  the  endings  -remo,  -rete  of  verbs  of  all  con- 
jugations: 

Mostreremo,  we  shall  show;   temerete,  you  shall  fear. 

(6)  In  the  adverbial  ending  -mente  and  the  sub- 
stantive ending  -mento : 

Felicemente,  happily;    andamento,  going,  gait.5 
10.  0  is  close: 


become  so  by  contraction  naturally  do  not  come  under  this  rule. 
Ex.:  s§'  (notse'),  for  sfi,  "  thou  art  ". 

1  Notice  that  this  has  the  grave  accent  to  distinguish  it  from  e 
conj.  Or,  more  exactly,  the  conjunction  does  not  take  the  grave 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  verbal  form  (32  (b)   (1)). 

2  But  not  in  pi|,  contraction  of  pi§de.      Cf.  note  to  9  (2). 

3  These  never  conform  to  rule. 

4  Notice  the  compounding  with  e,    "is". 

5  In  cases  not  covered  by  the  rules  the  e  is  open. 


8  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

(i)  In  unaccented  syllables.1 

(2)   In  monosyllables  ending  with  a  consonant2: 

Con,  with;   non,  not. 

11.  But  in  monosyllables  and  in  oxytones  ending  in 
a  vowel,  i.e.,  where  accented  o  ends  a  word,  that  o 
is  open  2 : 

S9,  I  know;   hg,  I  have;   mostrerg,  I  shall  show. 

Exceptions:  Lo,  definite  article  and  pronoun;  also 
contractions. 

[BUT3 In  all  cases  not  covered  by  the  first  rule  (para- 
graph 9  (1)  and  paragraph  10  (1)),  i.e.,  all  accented 
e's  and  o's,  will  in  this  book  have  their  quality  indi- 
cated by  diacritic  signs,  e  and  0  indicating  the  close, 
§  and  9  the  open  pronunciation. 

(b)  Value  of  the  Consonants. 

12.  P,  b,  f,  v,  m,  n,  1,  and  q3  are  pronounced  approxi- 
mately as  in  English,  the  stops  being,  however,  more 
explosive,4  and  the  n  and  1  being  made  farther  forward 
in  the  mouth.     • 

13.  T  and  d  are  so  much  farther  forward  as  to  come 
into  a  different  sound-category.  They  are  not,  as  in 
English,  post-dentals,  but  linguo-dentals,  the  tip  of 
the  tongue  touching  the  back  of  the  teeth  in  producing 
them. 

1  Cf.  9  (1).  Not  where  the  o  is  a  contraction  of  uo  in  cQr,  for 
cupre,  "  heart". 

2  Notice  the  difference  between  e  and  o. 

3  Q  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  table  of  consonants  because  it  is 
not  a  simple  consonant  but  equals  k  followed  by  w.  The  Italian 
q  always  represents  this  sound,  like  English  q  in  "quick".  It 
never  represents  k. 

«Cf.  7- 


VALUR   OF  THE   LETTERS   OF  THE   ALPHA  MET.  9 

14.  C  and  g  represent  two  quite  different  sounds. 
Before  the  back  vowels,  a,  o,  u,  they  represent  the 

back-palatal  stops,  c  the  voiceless,  somewhat  as  in 
English  'cat",  'kid",  g  the  voiced,  somewhat  as  in 
English  ' '  got ' ' : 

Canto,  I  sing  (c  as  in  English  "can"); 

gola,  throat  (g  as  in  English  "go"). 

15.  But  before  the  front  vowels,  e  and  i : 

(a)  C  represents  a  sound  somewhat  like  that  of 
English  ch,  i.e.,  it  passes  into  the  category  of  com- 
pound consonants: 

Cielo,  sky  (c  pronounced  like  ch  in  'chain'*);  cercare, 
to  look  for  (the  first  c  pronounced  ch,  the  second  k). 

(b)  G  also  becomes  a  voiced  compound  consonant, 
corresponding  to  the  voiceless  c  and  represents  a 
sound  like  that  in  English  'gentle",  but  more  forci- 
ble: 

Gentile,  nice  (g  almost  as  in  the  cognate  "gentle"); 

legislatura  (g  almost  as  in  the  corresponding  English 
word). 

Remark.  Cc,  gg  before  e  and  i  have  the  same  sound 
as  the  simple  consonant,  only  prolonged: 

Caccio,  I  hunt  (cc  like  tch  in  'catch",  but  prolonged); 
saggio,  wise  (gg  like  g  in  "sage",  but  prolonged). 

16.  Where  a  c  or  g  representing  the  back-palatal 
stop  stands  before  one  of  the  front  vowels,  an  h  is 
inserted  to  indicate  the  voiceless  pronunciation: 

Chiave,  key  (the  initial  sound  as  in  the  English 
word). 

Ghirlanda,  garland  (the  initial  sound  as  in  the  English 
word). 

Ch  never  has  the  sound  given  to  it  in  English  "  chin". 

17.  Ng  is  like  the  English   sound   in,  for  instance, 


io  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

"coming",  with  a  distinct  hard  g  after  it,  the  two, 
however,  forming  but  one  sound : 

Vengo,  I  come  (pronounced  vcnggo);  lingua,  tongue 
(litiggua). 

This  same  ng  sound  is  given  to  an  n  alone  before 
the  stop  c  or  before  q : 

Ancora,  again  (angkora);    dunque,  therefore  (dungkwe). 

1 8.  Consonantal  u,  i.e.,  unaccented  u  followed  by  a 
vowel, x  has  almost  the  sound  of  English  w : 

Ucjmo,  man  (u  almost  like  w  in  "woman"); 
guanto,  glove  (gwanto). 

U  never  has  the  sound  given  to  it  in  English  "museum", 
which  might  be  written  "mew". 

19.  S  has  two  sounds  in  Italian:  (1)  it  is  voiceless 
as  in  English  "see",  'hearse";  (2)  it  is  voiced  like 
the  s  in  "hears",  or  the  z  in  "maze".  The  general 
rule  is: 

S  initial  followed  by  a  vowel  or  by  one  of  the  voice- 
less consonants  c,  f,  p,  q,  t;  s  medial  followed  by  a 
voiceless  consonant,  also  ss,  are  voiceless  as  in  "  see": 

Santo,  saint;  sasso,  stone;  spiare,  to  spy;  fresco,  fresh; 
asfalto,  asphalt. 

S  medial  between  vowels,2  s  medial  or  initial  before 

the  voiced  consonants  b,  d,  g,  m,  n,  1,  r,  are  voiced  as 

<<        »»  /. 

in     use    :      -^-^ 

Sgridare,  to  scold;   museo,  museum. 

But  intervocalic  s  is  voiceless: 

(a)    After    the    prefixes    de,    di,  pre,  pro,  re,    ri,  tra 

(where  the  s  is  really  initial) : 

1  Accented  u  followed  by  a  vowel  retains  its  vowel  sound.  Ex.: 
due,  ''two"  (u  as  in  the  English  "duel"). 

2  This  rule  does  not  apply  to  cases  like  dicesi,  "they  say",  where 
the  s  is  really  initial,  =  si  dice.  In  compounds  like  girasole,  "sun- 
flower", the  s  is  also  initial. 


VALUE  OF  TH^  LETTERS  OF  THE  ALPHABET.   n 

Desalare,  to  soak,  to  remove  salt  ( =  de  +  salare) ;  disotto1 
(  =  di-f  sotto),  beneath;  presentire2  ( -  pre-f  sentire),  to 
foresee;  proseguitare  3  (  =  pro  +  seguitare),  to  continue; 
reservare,to  reserve;  resurgere  (or  risurgere) , to  rise  again; 
trasapere,  to  know  a  great  deal;   trasentire,  to  hear  wrong.4 

(b)  In  the  endings  -oso  (applied  to  adjectives)  and 
-ese  (applied  to  adjectives  and  substantives) : 

Pensoso,  thoughtful;  sdegnoso,  disdainful;  Bolognese, 
Bolognese,  of  Bologna;   inglese,  English. 

Exceptions:  Cortese,  courteous;  francese,  French; 
lucchese,  of  Lucca;  marchese,  marquis;  paese,  country; 
palese,  manifest;   also  a  few  rare  words. 

(c)  In  those  parts  of  the  verbs  ascondere  (or  nas- 
condere),  chi§dere,  chiudere,  porre,  radere,  ridere,  rima- 
nere;  rispondere,  rodere,  and  their  compounds  where 
the  combinations  -ese-,  esi-,  and  -oso-  occur: 

Nascosi,  I  hid;    chi§sero,  they  asked;   roso,  gnawed. 

Exceptions:  Those  words,  really  compounds  of  chiu- 
dere, which  show  the  Latin  cl  instead  of  the  ch  of  the  primi- 
tive (which  are,  that  is  to  say,  learned  words)5;  as,  escluso, 
"excluded";  clausura,  "closing";  'cloister",  deposito, 
and  other  learned  compound  of  porre  and  the  adjectives 
derived  from  rodere,  such  as  corrosivo,  "corrosive". 

{d)  In  the  words  asino,  "ass"  ;  casa,  'house";  co,sa, 
"thing";     cosi,    "thus";     desid^rio,     "desire";     fuso, 

1  Such  words  as  this  are  to  be  distinguished  from  those  like 
disordine,   "disorder"   (  =dis +ordine) ,  disgrazia,  etc. 

2  But  presentare,  "to  present",  has  the  voiced  s. 

3  But  proseggiare,  "to  write  prose"  (from  prosa),  has  a  voiced  s. 

4  But  trasandare,  "to  go  beyond",  with  z  sound  (from  trans-,  not 
tra+andare.     Although  tra  came  originally  from  transV 

5  Words  which  have  always  existed  as  part  of  the  spoken  lan- 
guage are  developed  more  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  pho- 
nology than  those  taken  from  book  Latin  at  a  comparatively  late 
date. 


MM  Mussulm.-nnv       '  Mu 

parastto  Pisa 

susmo      '  pi 

Sc   befoi  i 

•    ■ 

S*ic'.'::i     ■  <\\  ■■■'■'        '     ■  s< 

ic4toU 

ik  '  •  •  ■ 

••..-..■■ 

\n  cl       Kc  h  '  ■  i 

■  •  •     '   •■ 

tes  this  sound 4 

r 

;  ;    J  tS  CHI- 

a§ut, 

•  '■:•  ..'  to.    . 


«4«fctt* 

- 

■ 

- 


VALtJB  OF  THB  LETTERS  OF  THE    xi.i'ii  \iu.  i        [3 

24.  (ii  indicates  usually  the  Liquid  1,  a  sound  some 

what  1  i  1< i v  that  oi  in  in  "brilliant",  or  oi  ii  in  '   Brazil 

» » 1 
i.in    ' : 

Brij»lia,  In-idle;  ^li  (article  and  pronoun), 

(./)  But  in  tieglfgere,  "to  neglect",  and  its  derivativi 
the  k'  ,:;  sounded  as  in  English,  also  in  Angli,  Anglicano, 
geroglffico,  glicerlna,  and  &  few  other  rare  word 

These  words  are  not  thoroughly  [talianized. 

.»5-  Gte  represents  liquid  n,  a  sound  winch  bears  ili<- 
same  relation  i<>  »»  as  does  liquid  1  to  l.  Ii.  somewhal 
resembles  the  sound  <»i  nl  in  "union",  'onion",  01 
that  1  »i  nj;  in  French  montagne ' 

VergQgna,  shame;  agngllo,  lamb. 

26.  z   ;iikI  zz  usually  represent  8  ti  very  energeti 
cally   enunciated,    but   sometimes   the  corresponding 
voiced  sound  dz. 

In  general  a  z  derived  from  Latin  t,  ct,  or  pt  has 
the  voiceless  (is)  sound,  one  from  Latin  <i  or  (deck 
{  the  voiced  (dz) : 

Grdzia,  ju-.k-c,  f.-ivor  (    gratiam);   azione,  action  <     ai 

tidneui);    no/.zc,  w<-<  l«  Inn;  (       QUpti&f)      all  Willi  Is    iOUnd. 

But;  rozzo,  rude  (  rudum);  zona,  /one  with  dz 
sound. 

The  following  rule:;  may  also  be  helpful. 

The  s< lund  is  v< licelessi 

(a)  Generally  when  it  is  initial  or  when  it  is  medial 
after  a  consonant: 


1  Thia  comparison,  as  well  as  thai  given  below  foi  the  liquid  o, 
1.   very   Inadequate.     Tin-  sounds  .in-    ww/>/r      In    forming   them 
the  middle  oi  the  tongue  lies  almost   flat  against   the  hard  palate 
and  makes  the  ordinary  a,  1  In  withdrawing  the  tip  from  Its  po  1 
tion  near  1  he  bacl<  1  ii  1  he  uppei  teeth. 

'*  See  note  to  24. 


14  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

i  < 

Zio,  uncle;   avanzo,  remainder. 

(6)  When  it  is  followed  by  i  plus  a  vowel : 

Prezioso,  precious;   gzio,  leisure;    avarizia,  avarice. 

It  is  voiced:    X 5 

(a)  In  verbs  of  more  than  four  syllables  ending  in 
-izzare :    ^  <, 

Armonizzare,  to  harmonize;   utilizzare,  to  utilize. 

Exceptions:  Attizzare,  dirizzare,  guizzare,  rizzare, 
stizzare  have  on  the  contrary  the  voiceless  z.  Their 
compounds,  such  as  in  dirizzare,  keep  this  voiceless  sound. 

(b)  In  z§lo,  "zeal",  and  its  compounds;  in  azzurro, 
'azure";  bazar,  "bazaar";  dozzina,  'dozen";  m§zzo, 
'middle",  and  its  compounds;    orizzonte,  "horizon"; 

pranzo,       'dinner";      ribrezzo,      "shivering";      zeffiro, 
'zephyr";   zona,  "zone",  and  some  rare  words.1 

27.  H  is  silent  in  Italian.  It  is  found  as  initial  only 
in  the  verbal  forms  hg,  "I  have";  hai,  "thou  hast"; 
ha,  'he  has";  hanno,  "they  have",  and  in  a  few 
exclamations  such  as  hura  (really  not  Italian).  It 
serves  graphically  to  indicate  the  pronunciation  of  cer- 
tain combinations  (see  16  and  21),  and  sometimes 
to  show  that  two  vowels  coming  together  preserve 
each  one  its  separate  value,  as  in  ahi. 

Vowel  Groups. 

28.  Diphthongs  and  triphthongs  exist  apparently  in 
great  number  in  Italian,  but  there  are  in  reality  few 
diphthongs  and  no  triphthongs  at  all,  many  of  the 
vowels  having  consonantal  value,  and  many  diph- 
thongs in  appearance  being  really  dissyllables. 

1  For  which  sec  Moise. — It  will  be  noticed  that  the  words  given 
under  (b)  either  have  the  Latin  d  (<z)  or  are  of  foreign  extraction. 


VALUE   OF  THE   LETTERS   OF  THE  ALPHABET.        15 

In  bugno,  figliuglo,  for  instance,  the  u  before  o  is  a 
consonant  (=w),  and  the  i  after  gl  is  a  part  of  the  1 
(cf.  24).  In  other  combinations  given  under  22, 
foot-note  3,  i  is  a  mere  sign. 

In  bugi  the  u  is  a  consonant  and  the  final  i  forms  a 
syllable. 

A  real  diphthong  is  two  vowels  produced  by  one  and 
the  same  breath-impulse,  one  of  which  receives  the 
accent.1  A  diphthong  in  which  the  second  element 
is  the  accented  is  called  a  rising  diphthong,  one  in 
which  the  first  bears  the  accent  a  falling  diphthong: 

Ex.:  (c7)  Rising  diphthongs:  paese,  country;  paura2, 
fear. 

(b)  Falling  diphthongs:  ass£i,  very;  dura,  breeze,  air; 
l§i,  she,  to  her;   stoico,  stoic. 

Remarks,  (i)  In  all  (apparent)  rising  diphthongs  in 
which  the  first  member  is  i  or  u,  that  first  member  is  con- 
sonantal: 

Piede,  foot;  butjno,  good. 

(2)  In  compounds  where  the  principal  accent  is  removed 
from  the  diphthong,  that  diphthong  becomes  dissyllabic, 
i.e.,  the  two  vowels  form  each  a  separate  syllable,  thus 
dissolving  the  diphthong: 

Paese  (ae  diphthong) ,  paesano  (ae  dissyllabic);  paura, 
pauroso. 

Syllabication. 

29.  With  the  few  exceptions  of  the  diphthongs  and 
vocalic  dissyllables  (see  28),  Italian  words  have  as 
many  syllables  as  vowels,  and  the  syllables  are  divided 

1  Cf.  Hempl,  German  Orthography  and  Phonology- ,  146 

2  Care  must  be  taken  in  the  pronunciation  of  au.  The  sound 
is  not  aw  or  ow,  but  ah-oo,  pronounced  very  rapidly. 


1 6  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

in  such  a  way  that  each  begins  with  a  consonant.  In 
the  division 

(i)  A  consonant  between  two  vowels  goes  with  the 
second1: 

A-mo,  I  love;    zo-na;    119-mo. 

Exceptions:  Compound  words,  which  are  divided  into 
their  component  parts.  Ex.:  Mal-a-ge-vo-le,  "difficult", 
from  mal  and  agevole;   ab-u-sare,  "to  abuse"  (ab+usare). 

(2)  Double  consonants  are  divided: 
An-no,  year;    mez-zo;    doz-zi-na. 

(3)  Usually  in  medial  groups  of  two  or  more  con- 
sonants one  goes  with  the  preceding,  the  other  one 
or  two  with  the  following: 

Al-to,  high;  al-tro,  other. 

Exceptions2:  (i)  In  groups  composed  of  a  stop  or  a 
continuant  plus  a  liquid  (i.e.,  of  p,  b,  t,  d,  c,  g,  f,  v,  plus 
1  or  n)  both  members  go  with  the  following  syllable : 

Ma-dre,  mother;  a-cri-mo-ni-a,  acrimony;  te-a-tro, 
theatre;  a-pri-re,  to  open;   se-gre-to,  secret. 

(2)  In  the  case  of  c-\-q  there  is  difference  of  usage: 
a-cquistare  and  ac-quistare. 

Groups  of  5  followed  by  one  more  consonant  (5  impura) 
are  usually  said  also  to  make  exception;  but  while  the 
question  is  scarcely  decided,  it  is  probable  that  they  are 
divided  in  the  usual  way : 

1  The  syllables  must  be  sharply  divided,  and  the  pupil  must 
resist  a  tendency  to  attach  a  consonant  between  two  vowels  to 
the  first.  He  has  been  accustomed  to  say,  for  instance,  mcd-i- 
cine,  the  d  belonging  decidedly  to  the  first  syllable,  the  c  (5  sound) 
more  to  the  second  than  to  the  third.  He  must  in  Italian  divide 
the  same  word  thus:    me-di-ci-na. 

2  The  liquid  n  and  /  being  simple  sounds  go  with  the  following 
syllable  according  to  the  general  rule.  Ex.:  i-gnu-do,  "naked"; 
bri-glia,  "bridle". 


VALUE   OF  THE   LETTERS  OF   THE  ALPHABET.        17 

os-cu-ro,    "dark"    (not    o-scu-ro) ;    riKjs-tro,    "I    show" 
(not  1119-stro). 


Accentuation. 

30.  The  large  majority  of  Italian  words  are  strongly- 
accented  on  the  penult  (that  is,  the  syllable  before 
the  last) : 

mano,  hand ;  castigo,  punishment. 

There  are,  however,  many  words  bearing  the  tonic 
accent  on  the  antepenult  or  even  farther  back;  also 
a  considerable  number  bearing  it  on  the  last  syllable: 

Mostr^,1  he  showed;  mostrarono,  they  showed;  con- 
siderano,  they  are  considering;  virtu,  virtue;  propriety, 
property. 

Graphic  Accents. 

31.  Three  graphic  accents,  the  grave,  the  acute,  and 
the  circumflex,  are  used  in  Italian.  The  grave  is  much 
more  frequent  than  the  others. 

32.  The  grave  accent  is  placed: 

(a)  On  a  final  vowel  stressed  in  pronunciation: 
Mostrera  la  sua  bonta.     He  will  show  his  goodness. 

(b)  On  monosyllables  by  nature  or  by  contraction 
ending  in  a  vowel: 

Gia,  already;  piu,  more;  |,  is;  si,  yes;  pi§  (contracted 
from  pie,de),  foot. 

Exceptions:  (i)  A  number  of  homonyms  (that  is, 
words  the  same  in  appearance  and  often  in  sound,  but 
different  in  meaning),  such  as: 

1  Receives  the  grave  accent.     See  following  paragraph. 


1 8  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

e,  and,  to  distinguish  it  from  e,  is; 


se,  if, 

si,  self,  one, 

di,  of, 

ne,  of  it, 

la  (dcf.  art.), 

li      " 

da,  from, 


n 
<  < 


se,  self; 
si,  yes; 
di,  day; 
ne,  neither; 
la,  there ; 
li,  there ; 
da,  he  gives, 


(2)  Certain  verbal  forms ,  as :   fa,  he  does,  makes;  va,  he 

* 

goes;   sta,  he  stands ;   sa,  he  knows;   (but  PU9,  he  can). 
(c)  Also  often  as  a  distinguishing  mark  on: 

(1)  Shortened  forms  of  the  preterite  to  distinguish 
them  from  shortened  forms  of  the  infinitive: 

mostrar  (for  mostrarono),1  they  showed;  mostrar  (for 
mostrare),  to  show. 

temer  (for  temerono),  they  feared;  temer  (for  temere), 
to  fear. 

partir  (for  partirono),  they  departed;  partir  (for  par- 
tire),  to  depart. 

(2)  Other  verbal  forms  which  have  homonyms2: 
dai,  thou  givest;   dai  (prep,  plus  art.). 

danno,  they  give;    danno,  damage,  harm. 
VQi  (for  vugi),  thou  wishest;  voi,  you. 
abitino,  let  them  dwell;   abitino,3  little  dress. 

(3)  The  accented  penult  of  polysyllables  ending  in 
two  vowels: 

1  This  and  the  following  (corresponding)  forms  of  the  other 
conjugations  are  accented,  in  speaking,  on  the  antepenult:  mos- 
trarono, temerono,  partirono. 

2  This  usage  is  optional  and  arbitrary.  Some  writers  use  the 
acute  accent  in  these  cases. 

3  Accented  on  the  penult  according  to  the  general  rule. 


VALUE   OF  THE   LETTERS  OF  THE   ALPHABET.        19 

balia,  power;  balia,  nurse;  stropiccio,  rubbing;  stro- 
piccio,  I  rub. 

Also  when  the  word  has  no  homonym ;  as,  pazzia,  "  folly  ". 

(4)  The  open  vowel  of  the  penult  of  words  which, 
when  that  vowel  has  the  closed  sound,  have  a  differ- 
ent meaning: 

§ra  (for  aura),  zephyr;   ora,  hour. 

33.  The  acute  accent  is  used: 

(a)  Sometimes  instead  of  the  grave  in  the  cases 
enumerated  32  (c),  (2)  and  (3). 

(b)  Rarely  instead  of  the  grave  on  the  final  vowel 
of  oxytones  (i.e.,  words  stressed  on  the  last  syllable), 

cf .  32  (a) : 

Perche  (for  perche),  why;   teme  (for  teme),  he  feared. 

(c)  In  poetry  to  indicate  the  accentuation  of  a 
syllable  usually  not  accented: 

Umile  (usually  with  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable), 
humble ; 

cel^bre  (usually  with  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable), 
celebrated. 

34.  The  circumflex  accent  is  placed: 

(a)  On  o  in  contracted  forms  of  the  infinitive  to 
distinguish  them  from  homonyms: 

C§rre  (for  c^gliere),  to  gather;    corre,  he  runs. 

Tgrre  (for  tggliere),  to  take  away;   torre,  tower. 
But  not  all  o  verbs  take  this  accent.      Porre  (for 
ponere),  "to  put",  has  become  the  usual  form.      And 
contracted  verb -forms  accented  on  a  vowel  other  than 
o  never  show  it: 

Condurre  (for  conducere),  to  conduct;  trarre  (for  traere, 
but  also  much  more  common  than  the  older  form),  to 
draw;  bere  (for  bevere),  to  drink;  scerre  (for  scegliereV 
to  choose. 


20  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

(b)  Sometimes  on  the  i,  plural  of  the  noun  and  ad- 
jective ending  -io1: 

Studi,  studies;   necessari,  necessary. 

35.  It  will  be  observed  that  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
latitude  and  some  lack  of  unanimity  among  Italians 
as  to  the  use  of  the  graphic  accents.  Sections  32  (a), 
(b),  and  exceptions,  and  34  (a)  cover  the  ordinary 
usage.  151^  In  this  book  the  acute  accent  will  be 
employed  only  to  show  the  stressing  in  pronunciation 
of  a  syllable  other  than  the  penultimate  or  than  the 
ultimate  bearing  the  grave  accent.2  This  indication, 
together  with  the  marking  of  the  closed  and  open  e 
and  o  (see  note  under  11),  is  peculiar  to  it.  The 
accent  and  marking  are  to  be  observed  in  pronuncia- 
tion, but  not  to  be  employed  in  writing  the  exercises. 

Elision,  Contraction,  Truncation,  etc. 

36.  Besides  lo,  la,  gli,  le,  una  (article3),  lo,  la,  gli, 
le,  mi,  ti,  ci,4  vi,  ne,  si  (pronominal),  the  preposition 
di  and  the  conjunctions  se  and  che5  are  regularly 
elided  before  a  vowel.  All  words  of  more  than  one 
syllable  ending  in  an  unaccented  vowel  may  elide  that 
vowel  if  another  vowel  follows,6  or  truncate  it  before 

1  '-io  not  -10.  Special  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  accentu- 
ation of  words  ending  in  -io,  -ia.  No  rule  can  be  given  for  it. 
A  good  dictionary  should  be  the  guide. 

2  The  acute  will  also  be  placed  on  all  words  ending  in  -ia,  -io, 
whether  the  i  be  stressed  or  unstressed. 

3  For  which  see  41 . 

4  Which  becomes  c  only  before  e  and  i,  since  it  would  other- 
wise lose  its  proper  sound.     Cf.  14. 

5  Preferably  only  before  e  and  i. 

8  Elision  is  much  more  frequent  in  poetry  than  in  prose. 


VALUE   OF  THE  LETTERS  OF  THE  ALPHABET.       21 

any  initial  consonant  except  s  followed  by  another 
consonant;  but  compounds  of  the  conjunction  che, 
as  dacche,  giacche,  benche,  are  the  only  oxytones 
which  elide  their  accented  vowel,  ('on tractions  such 
as  a'  (for  ai),  p9*  (pqco)  are  common. 

(a)  The  conjunctions  e  and  0  and  the  preposition  a 
often  add  d  before  a  vowel;  the  preposition  su  adds  r: 
ed,  od,  ad,  sur. 

(b)  A  word  beginning  with  s  impure,  when  preceded  by 
a  consonant  prefixes  i:   scugla,  school;   in  iscugla,  in  school. 

Use  of  Capitals. 

37.  Capitals  are  employed  as  in  English  save  that: 

(a)  The  pronoun  io,  'I",  is  not  written  with  a 
capital  unless  it  begins  a  sentence,  whereas  Lei,  Ella, 
"you",  are  often  capitalized. 

(b)  Adjectives  of  nationality  are  not  written  with 
a  capital.  The  same  words  used  as  nouns  are  usually 
capitalized : 

]£cco  un  libro  italiano.  Here  is  an  Italian  book.  |) 
Italiano.     He  is  an  Italian. 

(c)  The  names  of  months  and  of  days  of  the  week 
are  usually  written  with  a  small  letter,  also  titles  such 
as  signor,  "  Mr".1 

(Exercise  I.) 

Correspondence  between  Italian  and  English. 

38.  There  are  in  Italian  a  large  number  of  words 
corresponding  so  nearly  both  in  form  and  meaning  to 
the  English  ones  that  they  may  be  easily  recognized 

1  Greater  individual  freedom  in  the  use  of  capitals  exists  in 
Italian  than  in  English. 


22  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

by  the  pupil.     The  following  lists  of  corresponding 
terminations  will  aid  in  this  recognition. 

Nouns. 

(The  letter  /  or  m  at  the  beginning  of  the  line  indicates  the  gender.) 

f .  ade  becomes  ata :  brigata,  cascata. 

m.  age  becomes  aggio:   paggio,  personaggio.1 

m.  al  becomes  ale:  animale,  canale  {or  alio:  corallo, 
cristallo,  metallo). 

m.  alt  adds  o:  asfalto,  cobalto.2 

m.  an  adds  o:  cristiano,  veterano. 

m.  ant  adds  e :  diamante,  instante. 

m.  arian  becomes  ario :  centenario,  unitario. 

m.  ate  becomes  ato :  carbonato,  stato. 

m.  ator  adds  e:    creatore,  oratore. 

m.  ce  becomes  cio  (zio,  zzo) :  comme^rcio  or  commerzio, 
palazzo  (sometimes  palaccio),  precipizio.3 

m.  cle  becomes  *culo,4  colo,  or  chio:  circolo  (or  cir- 
culo)  or  (more  commonly)  cerchio,  ostaculp. 

m.  ct  becomes  tto :    contatto,  eff§tto,  intelle,tto.5 

f.  cy  becomes  zia:  aristocrazia,  pot§nzia. 

m.  ent  adds  e:  accid§nte,  age,nte,  ori§nte;  or  adds  o: 
contento,  conv§nto,  tal§nto. 

m.  ge  becomes  *gio:  privil§gio,  vestigio. 

m.  gen  adds  o:  nitrogeno.6 

1  Many  others  in  which  the  correspondence  is  not  so,  perfect 
are  yet  easily  identified,  as:  viaggio,  "voyage",  "journey";  corag- 
gio,  ''courage";    oltraggio,  "outrage",  etc. 

2  Also  assalto,  "assault",  etc.  For  the  f  in  asfalto  see  p.  26, 
Rem.  3  (b). 

3  Also  solazzo,  "solace",  spazio,  "space",  etc. 

4  Terminations  marked  with  an  asterisk  indicate  that  words  so 
ending  arc  accented  on  the  antepenultimate  syllable. 

5  Also  prodotto,  "product". 

6Idrogeno,  "hydrogen",  ossigeno,  "oxygen",  etc. 


VALUE  OF  THE  LETTERS  OF  THE  ALPHABET.   23 

m.  graph  becomes  grafo:   autografo,  fonografo.1 
f.  ic  adds  *a:   aritmetica,  musica,  lggica. 
f .  ice  becomes  izia :    avarizia,  malizia. 
f.  ine  becomes  ina:    disciplina,  medicina. 
f.  ion  adds  e:   confusione,  religione. 
m.  isan  becomes  igiano :   artigiano,  partigiano.2 
m.  isk  becomes  isco :    asterisco,  basilisco. 
m.  ism  adds  0 :    despotismo,  pessimismo. 
m.  ist  adds  a:    artista,  dentista. 
m.  ite  becomes  ito :    appetito,  granito,  sito. 
m.  wewJaddso:  fragmento  (orframmento),  monumento. 
m.  meter  becomes  *metro :  anemometro,  gasometro. 
f .  mony  becomes  monia :  ceremonia,  parsimonia. 
f.  nee  becomes  nza:  danza,  intellig§nza,  sci§nza.3 
m.  on  adds  e :  barone.  sermone. 
m.  or  adds  e:  errore,  splendore,  vapore.4 
f.  ose  becomes  osa:    glucosa,  rQsa. 
m.  ot  adds  a:    despota,  patri§ta  (patri§tta). 
m.  phone  becomes  *fono :  gramdfono,  telefono. 
m.  ry  becomes  *rio :    consistgrio,  mist§rio. 
m.  scope  becomes  scopio :  microscopio,  telescopic 
f.  sis  becomes  si:   crisi  (or  crise),  sinopsi.5 
m.  ter  or  tre  becomes  tro :  c§ntro,  ministro,  registro. 
f.  tion  becomes  zione:  condizione,  nazione. 
f .  tude  becomes  *tudine :  amplitudine,  multitudine,  soli- 
tudine. 

1  This  ph  regularly  becomes  f :    filosofo,  etc.      Cf.   Remark   (3) 
(6),  p.  26. 

2  Also  cortigiano,  "courtesan",  etc. 

3  Also   eccellfnza,  "excellence",  circonferenza,    "circumference", 
etc.     In  other  cases  nee  gives  ncia;  as,  provincia,  "province",  etc. 

4Alsoautore,  "author",  onpre,  "honor",  etc. 
5  Also  tesi,  "thesis,"  etc. 


24  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

f .  ty  becomes  ta :    etemita,  societa.1 
m.  ule  becomes  *ulo:    capsulo  (or  capsolo),  gl§bulo. 
f .  lire  becomes  ura :  figura,  natura. 
m.  um  becomes  o :  museo,  premio.    • 
m.  us  becomes  o :  ce,nso,  genio. 

f.  y  (not  otherwise  provided  for    above)   becomes 
ia:    anatomia,  energia,  geografia,  zoologia. 

Adjectives.2 

acious  becomes  ace :  capace,  sagace,  verace. 

al  adds  e :  centrale,  immortale. 

an  adds  o :    americano,  pagano. 

ant  adds  e :    dominante,  vacante. 

ar  adds  e :    circolare,  solare. 

arious  becomes  ario :   prec£rio,  vicario. 

ary  becomes  ario :   contrario,  ordinario. 

ate  becomes  ato :    duplicato,  ornato. 

ble  becomes  *bile :    nubile,  notabile,  solubile. 

ct  becomes  tto :    intatto,  perf^tto. 

ense  becomes  enso :    de,nso,  imm§nso. 

ent  adds  e:    evid§nte,  prud§nte  (oro:    cont§nto). 

est  adds  o :    manifesto,  on§sto. 

eous  becomes  *eo :    calcareo,  erroneo,  i^eo. 

ferous  becomes  *fero :    aurifero,  carbonifero. 

ic  or  ical  becomes  ico :   misantr§pico,  satirico.3 

ique  becomies  ico :    antico. 

id  adds  *o:    rapido,  s^lido,  valido. 

He  remains  unchanged :  facile,  fertile,  fragile. 

1  Also  cittk,  "city",  etc. 

2  Only  the  masculine  singular  of  the  Italian  adjectives  is  given. 

3  Also  pubblico,    "public",  etc.     But  musicale   as  given    above 
under  al. 


VALUE   OF  THE   LETTERS   OF   THE   ALPHABET.        25 

ine  becomes  ino:   aquilino,  divino. 
zte  becomes  ito:  erudito,  infinito. 
ive  becomes  ivo:  decisivo,  definitive1 
lent  adds  o :  viol§nto. 
nal  becomes  no:    diurno,  et^rno. 
ocious  becomes  oce :    atroce,  feroce,  precoce. 
cry  becomes  orio:    meritQrio,  preparatories2 
ose    or   ous   becomes    oso:     verboso,  famoso,  furioso, 
luminoso.3 

tial  becomes  ziale :  potenziale. 

und  becomes  ondo :  moribondo,  rubicondo. 

ure  becomes  uro :  futuro,  puro. 

Verbs. 

ate  becomes  are :  calcolare,  investigare. 

fy  becomes  ficare:    fortificare,  magnificare. 

ize  becomes  izzare :    civilizzare,   organizzare. 

e  becomes  often  are :  cominciare,  continuare,  curare, 
etc.4 

Remarks,  (t)  The  fact  that  most  Italian  words 
end  in  a  vowel  is  evident. 

(2)  It  will  further  be  observed  that  (a)  English  x 
(which  is  not  a  simple  consonant,  =ks)  is  replaced 
by  c  or  s:  eccellfnza,  'excellence";  ossigeno,  '  oxy- 
.gen".  (6)  Ou  or  u  are  often  replaced  by  o:  corrag- 
gio,  "courage";  cortigiano,  'courtesan";  circolare, 
"circular",     (c)  In  combinations  of  two  stops  assim- 

1  Also  attivo,  "active",  etc. 

2  Preparativo  is,  however,  more  used. 

3  Also  giocoso,  "jocose",  lussurioso,  "luxurious",  etc. 

4  These  English  e  verbs  are  mostly  derived  from  French  verbs 
of  the  first  conjugation,  i.e.,  er  verbs.  The  comparison  here  of 
the  three  languages  with  the  Latin  is  interesting. 


26  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

ilation     occurs:       perf§tto,      'perfect";      manifattore, 

'  manufacturer".       (d)  H  is  omitted:  onore,  "  honor"; 

teatro,     'theatre";     reumatismo,     'rheumatism"    (cf. 

27). 

(3)  In  words  of  Greek  origin: 

(a)  Y  becomes  i:  simpatia,  "sympathy";  tipo- 
grafic  o ,      typographical ' ' . 

(b)  Ph  becomes  f:  filosofo,  "philosopher";  orto- 
grafia,  ' '  orthography ' ' . 

(c)  Initial  pn,  ps,  and    pt  drop    the    p:    neumatico, 
'pneumatic";    salmista,  "  Psalmist" ;  Tolomeo,  "Ptol- 
emy". 

(4)  It  is  not  unusual  in  Italian  to  find  two  develop- 
ments of  the  same  termination,  or  two  forms  of  the 
same  word:  palacio  and  palazzo,  circolo  and  circulo. 

(5)  There  are  in  Italian  many  words  beginning  with 
consonant  groups  strange  to  the  English,  which  never- 
theless correspond  to  English  words:  sviluppare,  'to 
develop";  smontare,  "to  dismount".  The  develop- 
ment of  the  words  may  be  made  clear  by  the  consider- 
ation of  such  doublets  as  sviare  and  the  older  disviare, 
"  to  lead  out  of  the  way",  etc. 

ISir3  Words  corresponding  in  the  two  languages,  or 
which  may  be  understood  and  formed  by  the  help  of 
the  foregoing  directions,  will  be  spaced  in  the  exercises 
in  this  book  and  will  not  appear  in  the  vocabularies. 
Where  two  or  more  Italian  terminations  correspond 
to  one  English  one,  the  Italian  word  will  be  given, 
but  it  is  hoped  that  the  table  will  even  in  these  cases 
help  to  impress  the  word  upon  the  memory. 


FIRST  PRINCIPLES.  27 

CHAPTER   I. 

FIRST     PRINCIPLES. 

Articles  and  Nouns. 

39.  All  nouns  in  Italian  are  either  masculine  1  r 
feminine.  Their  gender  and  number  are  indicated 
by  their  form  and  by  that  of  the  accompanying  article. 

There  are,  as  in  English,  two  numbers,  singular  and 
plural,  and  two  articles,  the  definite  and  the  indefinite. 

40.  The  definite  article  has  the  following  forms: 
Masculine : 

(a)  Singular  il,  plural  i,  before  a  wx>rd  beginning  with 
any  consonant  except  impure  s1  and  z.2 

(b)  Singular  lo,  plural  gli,  before  a  word  beginning 
with  any  vowel,  or  with  impure  s1  or  z.3 

Lo  is  contracted  into  V  before  any  vowel,  gli  into  gl' 
only  before  i : 

II  maestro,  the  teacher,  master;    i  maestri,  the  masters. 

1  That  is,  s  followed  IJ^Panother  consonant.  Italians  find  diffi- 
culty in  pronouncing  three  consonants  in  succession,  hence  the 
differentiation  in  the  use  of  the  article  forms.  This  differentia- 
tion is  of  comparatively  modern  origin.  The  same  effort  to  avoid 
a  group  of  consonants  difficult  of  pronunciation  and  hence  con- 
sidered inharmonious  is  shown  in  the  forms:  la  strada,  "the 
street";  but  in  istrada,  "in  the  street";  scuola,  "school",  but 
in  iscuola.    Cf.  36  (6). 

2  The  older  article  form  li  is  sometimes  found  instead  of  il 
in  dates:   II  or  li  cinque  maggio.    'the  fifth  of  May". 

3  Either  il  or  lo  may  be  used  before  z,  but  il  may  never  be  used 
before  impure  s.  Lo  is  used  with  pseudonimo,  "pseudonym". 
II  is  used  with  dio,  "god",  but  the  plural  takes  either  i  or  gli: 
il  dio,  gli  or  i  dei  (or  dii). 


28  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

NLo  scolare,  the  scholar;   gli  scolari,  the  scholars. 
v  L'  1191110,  the  man;   gli  ugmini,  the  men. 
\! L*  Italiano,  the  Italian;   gP  Italiani,  the  Italians. 

Feminine : 

Singular  la,  plural  le. 

La    becomes  V  before  any  vowel,  le  may  become  1' 
before  e  only1: 
^La  mano,  the  hand;   le  mani,  the,  hands. 
v-L*  §rre,  the  letter  R;   1'  §rre,  the  R's. 

1/  economia,  the  economy;  1'  economie,  the  economies. 
J  L'  epistola,  the  epistle;   V  epistole,  the  epistles. 

41.  The  forms  of  the  indefinite  article  are: 
Masculine : 

(a)  Un,  corresponding  to  il  and  accordingly  used 
before  any  consonant  except  impure  s  and  z.  The 
same  form  is  used  before  all  vowels.2 

(b)  Uno,3  corresponding  to  lo,  and  used  like  it  be- 
fore impure  s  and  z  4 : 

4  Un  libro,  a  book;    uno  scolare,  a   scholar;    un  ugmo,  a 
man. 

Feminine : 

una,  contracted  to  un*  before  a  y^vel : 
v  Una  ragazza,  a  girl;    un'  gra,  an^Bur. 

42.  From  the  foregoing  paragraphs  and  examples 
is  abstracted  the  following  general  rule  for  gender  and 
number : 

1  This  is  the  rule  for  ordinary  prose. 

2  Strictly  speaking  the  form  when  used  before  a  vowel  is  uno 
with  contraction  of  the  o,  but  since  the  contraction  is  never  indi- 
cated by  an  apostrophe  it  seems  best  to  consider  it  as  identical 
with  un. 

3  Compare  the  use  of  English  "a"  and  "an". 

4  The  indefinite  article  has  no  plural.      "Some"  =alcuni. 


*< 


ARTICLES   WITH    PREPOSITIONS 


29 


The  sign  of  the  masculine  singular  is  o ;  of  the  mas- 
culine plural  i. 

The  sign  of  the  feminine  singular  is  a;  of  the  femi- 
nine plural  e. 

This  general  rule  applies  to  articles,  nouns,  pro- 
nouns, and  adjectives. 

Exceptions  will  be  noted  la}er. 

{Exercises  II  and  III.) 
(Read  II  and  write  III.) 

CHAPTER  II. 

ARTICLES  WITH   PREPOSITIONS. 
Syntax  of  the  Article. 

43.  Italian  nouns  are  not  inflected.  Their  rela- 
tions are  indicated  by  the  use  of  prepositions.  When 
the  definite  article  is  used  with  a  preposition  the  two 
are  usually  contracted  into  one  word.  The  contrac- 
tions are: 


il 
del 

i 

lo 

gli 

la 

le 

V 

di,  of 

dei  (de») 

dello 

degli 

della 

delle 

dell' 

a,  to 

al 

ai  (a') 

alio 

agli 

alia 

alle 

all' 

da,  by 

dal 

dai  (da') 

dallo 

dagli 

dalla 

dalle 

dall' 

in,  m 

nel 

nei  (ne') 

nello 

negli 

nella 

nelle 

nelP 

con,  with 

col 

coi  (co') 

collo 

cogli 

colla 

colle 

coll' 

su,  on 

sul 

sui  (su') 

sullo 

sugli 

sulla 

sulle 

sull' 

per,  for 

pel 

pei  (pe») 

pello 

pegli 

pella 

pelle 

pell' 

Remarks,     (i)  Per  is   less  often  contracted   than 
the  other  prepositions. 


30  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

(2)  The  forms  de',  a',  etc.,  are  pronounced  almost  as 
though  written  dei,  ai,1  etc. : 
-II  libro  del  ragazzo.     The  boy's  book. 
II  libro  dello  scolare  §  sulla  tavola.     The  scholar's  book 
is  on  the  table. 
j  L*  immagine  nello  sp§cchio.    The  image  in  the  mirror. 

Syntax  of  the  Definite  Article. 

Remark.  It  is  advised  that  only  the  rules  given  in 
coarse  print  be  learned  at  this  point,  although  others  may 
be  referred  to. 

44.  The  definite  article  is  used  in  Italian  where  it 
would  not  be  in  English: 

(1)  Before  abstract  nouns  and  nouns  denoting  a 
whole  class  of  beings  as  objects: 

/  L'  attenzione  §  necessaria.     Attention   s  necessary. 
J  La  carita  §  una  virtu.     Charity  is  a  virtue, 
v  L'  ugmo  §  mortale.     Man  is  mortal. 
i/GP  Italiani  amano  la  musica.     Italians  love  music. 

(2)  Before  a  title  followed  by  a  proper  name: 

*  II  re  Vittgrio  Emanu§le.     King  Victor  Emmanuel. 

>  II  signor  Bernasconi.     Mr.  B. 

1  La  contessa  Cesaresco.     Countess  C. 
Exceptions:   (a)  Where  the  title  is  a  vocative. 
(b)  Often  before  papa,  re,  conte,  and  maestro2: 
Papa  or  il  Papa  Innoc^nzio,  Pope  Innocent. 

1  De  la,  etc.,  often  seen  of  late,  are  pronounced  as  though  written 
della,  etc.  The  ear  often  decides  as  to  whether  a  form  should  or 
should  not  be  contracted.  Ex.:  Domand^  con  un  cert'  atto  tras- 
curato  ma  col  cuor  sospeso,  e  con  1'  orrecchio  all'  erta.-  Con  gli  occhi 
stralunati  (Manzoni,  I  Promessi  Sposi,  Cap.  II). 

2  But  the  article  can  never  be  omitted  before  imperatore,  "  em- 
peror". 


ARTICLES   WITH   PREPOSITIONS.  31 

(c)  In  the  titles  Carlo  magno,  "Charlemagne";  Ales- 
sandro  magno,1  'Alexander  the  Great";  Maria  Vergine,2 
"the  Virgin  Mary". 

(3)  Before  the  surnames  of  well-known  persons3: 
v  II  Machiav§lli  §  morto.     Machiavelli  is  dead. 

La  Duse  §  attrice.     Duse  is  an  actress. 

(4)  Before  the  given  names  of  women: 
|)cco  1'  Albina.     Here  is  Albina.4 

Remark.  This  rule  is  sometimes  extended  to  the  given 
names  of  well-known  men,  to  given  names  in  the  vocative 
preceded  by  the  possessive,  and  often  to  diminutives: 

Dante,  or  il  Dante.5 

Parlami,  il  mio  ptjvero  Enrico!  Speak  to  me,  my  poor 
Henry ! 

II  Carlino.     Charlie. 

(5)  Before  the  names  of  continents,  countries,  prov- 
inces, mountains,  lakes,  seas,  rivers,  but  not  cities c : 

1  But  notice  that  magno  is  really  a  Latin  word,  and  an  adjective, 
not  a  title,  and  that  Carlo,  Alessandro,  are  baptismal,  not  family 
names.      (See  following  rules.) 

2  But  la  Vergine  Maria. — Where  the  words  Madama,  Madami- 
gella  are  followed  by  a  title  the  article  comes  between  as  in 
French  (the  words  being  borrowed  from  that  language) :  Madama 
la  Contessa  Cesaresco,  Madam  the  Countess  C. 

3  There  is  in  these  cases  an  adjective  implied  such  as  'well 
known",  etc.  Compare  rule  (6),  below. — Neither  is  this  rule 
always  observed  by  good  writers:  Senza  aver  gran  cognizipne  di 
Condillac.  Without  having  great  knowledge  of  C.  II  sfcolo  di 
Voltaire,  Voltaire's  century  (Pellico,  Le  Mie  Prigioni  Cap  XXI). 
The  article  is  not  used  where  the  given  name  and  the  surname 
are  expressed. 

4  Here  again  one  might  supply  "our",  "our  good",  etc. 

5  Notice,  however,  that  Dante  is  properly  speaking  not  a  sur- 
name. 

6  Exceptions:  il  Cairo,  la  Mirandola,  la  Bastia,  la  Mecca,  la  Rot- 
cella,  1'  Aia. 


32  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

j  Abitiamo  V  America  del  Nord.    We  live  in  North  America. 
^  L'  Italia  §  una  penisola.     Italy  is  a  peninsula. 
v  11  Piemonte  §  una  parte  dell'  Italia.     Piedmont  is  a  part 
of  Italy. 

yIl  Tevere  §  un  flume  pr§sso  Roma.      The  Tiber  is  a  river 
near  Rome. 

But: 
j  Fire.nze  §  una  be,  11a  citta.     Florence  is  a  beautiful  city. 
Exceptions:  The  article  is  omitted: 

(a)  After  in,  meaning  either  going  to  or  dwelling  in 
a  country: 

v  Vado  in  Italia.     I  am  going  to  Italy. 
|)ccomi  in  Francia.     Here  I  am  in  France. 

(b)  After  di,  where  the  preposition  and  name  of 
country  could  be  replaced  by  an  adjective  of  nation- 
ality : 

II  parlamento  d'  Inghilt§rra.     The  English  parliament. 
L'  imperatore  di  Germania.     The  German  emperor. 
II  Piemonte  §  una  provincia  d'  Italia.     Piedmont  is  an 
Italian  province. 

(c)  Before  Candia,  Cipro,  Corfu,  Ischia,  Malta. 

(6)  ■  The  article  is  generally  used  before  a  noun 
qualified  by  a  possessive  or  a  possessive-relative 1 
pronoun,  or  by  any  adjective  excepting  one  of 
quantity : 

v   I  mi§i  libri.     My  books.     La  Sua  mano.     Your  hand. 
vLa  ragazza  la  di  cui  mamma  §  qui.      The  girl  whose 

mother  is  here. 

I  bu<mi  ragazzi  sono  studiosi.     Good  boys  are  studious.2 
]Jcco  la  mia  mano  d§stra.     This  is  my  right  hand. 

(7)  After  the  verb  avere  in  descriptions  of  physical  or 
spiritual  characteristics : 

1  Compare  134,  135,  147  (a). 

2  This  example  would  also  fall  under  rule  (1). 


ARTICLES   WITH   PREPOSITIONS.  33 

L'  Albina  ha  Je  mani  piccole.     A.  has  small  hands. 
Ernestino  ha  il  cuore  buono.    Little  E.  has  a  good  heart. 

(8)  Instead  of  the  possessive  in  cases  where  there  is  no 
danger  of  ambiguity  (see  137  (1)): 

Io  apro  la  mano.     I  open  my  hand. 

Chiudo  i  pugni.     I  close  my  fists. 

M9Stri  il  braccio  sinistro.     Show  your  left  arm. 

(9)  Before  an  infinitive  or  other  part  of  speech  used  as 
a  noun: 

/L'  andare  ed  il  tornare.     The  going  and  returning. 
/Il  bene  e  il  male.     Good  and  evil. 

(10)  Before  numerals  indicating  the  year  without  in- 
dication of  month,  etc.,  also  before  those  indicating  the 
day  of  the  month,  and  the  hour  of  the  day: 

J  JJra  nel  mille  otto  cento  (or  nel  1800).     It  was  in  1800. 

/ 1)  il  13  s§ttembre.     It  is  the  13th  of  September. 

t  La  lezione  comincia  alle  nove.    The  lesson  begins  at  nine 

o'clock. 

v  Sono  le  undid.     It  is  eleven  o'clock. 

(11)  Distributively : 

(a)  In  specifying  price,  etc.,  where  in  English  the  in- 
definite article  is  used: 

Bu^o  lire  il  metro.     Two  liras  a  meter.   u+J- 
J  Uo,va  a  trenta  soldi  la  dozzina.     Eggs  at  thirty  cents  a 
dozen. 
„  Una  volta  la  settimana.     Once  a  week. 

(b)  Before  the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  where  in 
English  the  plural  would  be  used  to  indicate  a  certain  day 
of  every  week : 

j  H9  una  lezione  il  mercoledi  e  il  sabato.      I  have  a  lesson 
on  Wednesdays  and  on  Saturdays. 

(12)  Before  the  names  of  the  months  when  a  certain 
month  is  specifically  indicated1: 

1  Notice  the  indication  of  time  in  (10),  (11),  and  (12). 


34  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

v  Nell'  ottobre  mille  otto  c§nto.1     In  October  (of  the  year) 
1800 

45.  The  definite  article  being  so  much  more  fre- 
quent in  Italian  than  in  English,  it  may  be  easier  for 
a  begmner  to  recollect  first  the  substantive  construc- 
tions in  which  it  does  not  occur.  It  is,  as  we  have 
seen,  not  used  before  the  names  of  cities,  or  before 
those  of  countries  after  in  and  di  with  certain  mean- 
ings     It  is  further  not  used: 

(1)  Before  a  vocative: 

^Buon  giorno,  signor  Bernardo.     Good  morning,  Mr.  B. 
Se,nta,  amico  mio.     Listen,  my  friend 

(2)  Before  the  name  of  a  near  relative  in  the  singular 
and  without  other  modifiers  than  a  possessive: 

•/  Mia  madre,  mio  padre  e  il  mio  amico.      My    mother, 
father,  and  friend. 

v  Mio  irate.Ho  e  le  mie  sor§lle.     My  brother  and  sisters. 
Remark.     But  the  article  is  used  with  diminutives,  or 
where  the  noun  has  other  modifiers  than  the  possessive: 

II   mio   fratellino   §   colla    mia    cara   madre.     My   little 
brother  is  with  my  dear  mother. 

(3)  Before  a  noun  qualified  by  a  demonstrative  or 
numeral  adjective: 

Mostro  quell'  uomo.     I  am  pointing  at  that  man. 
Ha  parecchi  libri.     He  has  several  books. 
Ho  due  braccia.     I  have  two  arms. 

(4)  Before  nouns  having  a  very  vague,  general'sense : 
Vende  carta  e  penne.     He  sells  paper  and  pens. 

(a)   In  certain  set  phrases.     Cf.  136  (2). 

(5)  Before  ordinal    numbers    used    with    names  of 

1  One  might  also  say:   In  ottobre  del  mille  otto  cento,  or  Nel  mese 
d'  ottobre  mille  otto  cento,  but  not  Nell   ottobre  del  mille  otto  cento 
Compare  rule  (10).      It  will  be  seen  that  regard  for  euphony  plays 
a  certain  role  here. 


ARTICLES   WITH   PREPOSITION'S.  .35 

rulers  where  we  employ  the  article  in  English:    (Ob- 
serve that  this  is  the  only  case  where  we  employ  it 
when  the  Italian  does  not.) 
Carlo  nono.     Charles  the  Ninth. 

(6)  Before  Maesta,  Altezza,  Eccellenza: 
Sua  Maesta  parla.     His  Majesty  is  speaking. 

(7)  Before  nouns  preceded  by  di,  meaning  "on", 
or  "of"  in  the  sense  of  cause: 

/  Vivo  di  pane.     I  live  on  bread. 

,/  Morivano  di  fame.     They  were  dying  of  hunger. 

46.  The  article  must  be  repeated  before  each  one  of 
a  series  of  nouns,  where  in  English  the  repetition 
would  not  be  necessary: 

•  Gli  ugmini,  le  donne  ed  i  bambini  vgngono.     The  men, 
women,  and  children  are  coming. 

v  5CC0  una  lavagna  e  un  lapis.     Here  are  a  slate  and  pen- 
cil. 

{Exercises  IV  and   V .) 

The  Partitive. 

47.  The  definite  article  in  combination  with  di  is 
used  in  Italian  to  express  a  sense  often  not  expressed 
in  English,  but  best  rendered  by    'some'    or  "any".1 

Ha  dei  libri?     Have  you  anv  books? 

C9sa  ha?     Dei  libri?     What  have  you?     Books? 

Si,  dei  libri.     Yes,  books. 
vE  L§i,  C9sa  ha?     And  you,  what  have  you? 
vHg  del  pane  e  dell'  acqua.     I  have  bread  and  water. 
s  Ha  scritto    delle    gpere    maravigliose.     He    has   written 
(some)  marvellous  works. 

1  Di  used  alone  has  sometimes  an  analogous  sense.  Ex.:  Man- 
gio  di  questo  pane.      I  eat  (some  of)  this  bread,  I  eat  of   this  bread. 

Cf.  English,  "I  taste  of  it". 


36  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

48.  This  partitive  form  is,  however,  not  used  where 
the  English  "some"  or  "any"  add  nothing  to  the 
sense : 

>Vugle  pane?     Do  you  want  (some)  bread? 
x/Vugle  del  pane?     Do  you  want  some  (of  the)  bread  ? 

Remarks,  (i)  The  partitive  is  not  used  in  a  neg- 
ative sentence: 

v  Ha  qualche  cgsa  per  me?     Have  you  something  for  me? 
yHg  della  carta,  non  I19  lapis.     I  have  some  paper.      I 
have  no  pencils. 
vNon  abbiamo  fiori.     We  haven't  any  flowers. 

(2)  The  construction  is  less  frequent  in  Italian  than 
in  French.  Its  use  is  seldom  obligatory  and  often 
arbitrary,  varying  greatly  with  the  individual. 

Syntax  of  the  Indefinite  Articlea 

49.  The  indefinite  article  is  never  used  in  Italian 
where  it  would  not  be  in  English. 

It  is,  on  the  contrary,  omitted  in  Italian  where  it 
would  be  expressed  in  English: 

(1)  Before  a  predicate  noun,  expressing  occupation, 
rank,  or  nationality,  without  qualifiers,  and  following 
the  verbs  essere  (to  be)  and  fare  (to  make,  do) : 

(Also  divenire,    diventare,    nascere,    morire,    mostrarsi, 
pare  re,  proclamare,  sembrare,  e*ssere  dichiarato.) 
J    %  Italiano.     He  is  an  Italian. 

^  anche  principe.     He  is  also  a  prince. 

Si  fara  impiegato.  He  will  become  an  official.  (Lit- 
erally, "he  will  make  himself.") 

Remark.  But  a  noun  accompanied  by  an  adjective, 
or  a  noun  answering  the  question  "who  is  he?"  (it  will  be 
observed  that  in  the  examples  under  (1)  all  answer  "what 
is  he?")  takes  the  article: 


NOUNS,  THEIR  GENDER  AND  NUMBER.      37 

*■  l£  un  Italiano  patri^tico.     He  is  a  patriotic  Italian. 
/  |)  un  bu<m  principe.     He  is  a  good  prince. 
v  Chi  |  quell'  1191110?     §  un  me'dico.     Who  is  that  man? 
He  is  a  doctor  ( =  That  is  a  doctor). 

(2)  Before  a  noun  in  apposition: 

y/  II  Tevere  flume  pr§sso  Roma.     The  Tiber,  a  river  near 
Rome. 

Ce>are  Bgrgia,  ugmo  s<mza  miseric^rdia.  Caesar. Borgia, 
a  man  without  pity. 

y  Dante,  gran  po§ta  d' Italia.     Dante,  a  great  Italian  poet. 

(3)  After  da,  meaning  ''as",  "like"1: 
/  Parlo  da  amico.     I  speak  as  a  friend. 

Si  travesti  quattro  vglte,  da  pellegrino,  da  marinaio,  da 
soldato,  da  acrobata.  He  disguised  himself  four  times,  as 
a  pilgrim,  as  a  sailor,  as  a  soldier,  as  an  acrobat. 

(4)  Before  the  numerals  c§nto ,  ' '  hundred ' ' ,  mille , ' '  thou- 
sand"2 : 

V  Sono  ce,nto  u^mini.    They  are,  there  are,  a  hundred  men. 
y  Dopo  mille  anni.     After  a  thousand  years. 

(5)  In  certain  adverbial  expressions,  such  as: 

y  A    casa,   "at    home";    a   scuola   {or  in    iijscuola),   "at 
school";  in  camera,  "in  the  bedroom". 

(6)  In  certain  exclamations,  for  which  see  157. 

(Exercises  VI  and  VII.) 

CHAPTER  III. 

NOUNS,  THEIR  GENDER  AND  NUMBER. 

50.  All  Italian  nouns  are  either  masculine  or  femi- 
nine (cf.  39).  The  gender  and  number  are  usually 
indicated  by  the  ending,  singular  o,  plural  i  being 
the    typical    masculine    endings,    singular    a,    plural 

1  Cf.  French  je  parle  en  ami.  2  Cf.  291  (c). 


38  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

e  the  feminine.  However,  not  all  masculine  nouns 
end  in  o,  neither  do  all  those  ending  in  o  take  i  in  the 
plural,  nor  are  these  endings  always  proof  that  the 
noun  exhibiting  them  is  masculine. 

GENDER. 
General  Rules  for  Gender. 

(i)  Nouns  denoting  male  and  female  beings  usually 
keep  their  natural  genders: 
y  II  re,  the  king;   la  regina,  the  queen. 

Un  lavandajo,  a  fuller;  una  lavandaja,  a  washerwoman. 

II  toro,  the  bull;   la  mia  gallina,  my  hen. 

Tuo  padre,  thy  father;   ngstra  madre,  our  mother. 

Exceptions:  Guardia,  "guard";  guida,  "guide"; 
recluta,  ' '  recruit ' ' ;  sentine.Ha,  '  sentinel ' ' ;  spia,  ' '  spy ' ' , 
are  feminine  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  usually 
designate  male  beings.  Here  the  grammatical  gender 
prevails  over  the  natural  (compare  following  para- 
graph) . 

(2)  Nouns  ending  in  o  are  masculine,  in  a  feminine.1 

These  are,  as  already  noted,  the  typical  endings  of 
the  two  genders: 

V  L'  abito,  the  coat •/  la  camicia,  the  shirt,  blouse. 
UI1  naso,  the  nose;   la  bocca,  the  mouth. 
v   II  muro,  the  wall;   la  stanza,  the  room. 

Exceptions:  (a)  Feminine  nouns  which  are  mas- 
culine in  ending: 

1  Latin  masculines  and  feminines  as  a  rule  retain  their  gender. 
The  common  masculine  accusative  singular  -um  gives  -o,  the 
feminine  accusative  singular  -am>a.  Nouns  coming  from  Latin 
neuter  singulars  are  usually  masculine,  those  from  the  plurals 
feminine,  the  endings  being  here  decisive.  Templum  >(il)  tempio, 
folia<(la)  f<?glia.  Masculine  nouns  in  o  with  a  plural  in  a  are  rem- 
nants of  the  Latin  neuter  declension.     Cf.  63  and  64. 


NOUNS,  THEIR  GENDER  AND   NUMBER.  39 

'  La  mano,1  "the  hand".      Also  §co,    'echo",  and    a 
few  other  rare  words: 

(b)  Masculine  nouns  of  feminine  ending: 
v  II  po§ta,  "poet",!l  duca,  "duke",ll  monarcQ,  "mon- 
arch". Alsoycol§ra,  " cholera"/ sofa,  "sofa",  and  a 
few  other  words  of  foreign  extraction2;  enigma, 
"enigma"/ problema,  "problem",  and  other  words  in 
-ma  derived  from  the  Greek,  many  geographical 
names,  and  qualcosa,  "something"  (properly  a  phrase, 
not  single  word). 

(3)   Nouns  ending  in  u  are  feminine: 

"la  virtu,  "virtue";  Ma   gioventu,3    'youth";17 la  gru, 

«<  >  > 

crane    .  y 

Exceptions:    A    few    foreign    words,    such    as    bambu, 

"bamboo",  also  other  parts  of  speech  used  as  nouns,  as 

vilpiu,4  "more";   and  bau,  "dog's  bark";   meu,  "fennel"; 

vPeru,  "Peru". 

More  Special  Rules  for  Gender. 

51.  Of  nouns  ending  in  e  and  i  some  are  masculine, 
some  feminine.5  The  meaning  of  the  word  may  de- 
cide. 

(a)  Masculine  are: 

1  From  Latin  manus,  manum,  which,  though  a  feminine  of  the 
fourth  declension,  exactly  resembles  in  form  the  masculines  of  the 

second. 

2  Notice  that  words  imperfectly  Italianized  usually  make  ex- 
ceptions. Cf.  following  paragraph,  exceptions,  also  24  (a),  foot- 
note 5,  p.  11,  etc. 

3  Notice  that  these  nouns   are   names  of   abstractions.      Cf.  51 

(b)    (1). 

«Cf.  51   (a)   (2). 

5  Since  all  really  Italian  nouns  end  in  a  vowel,  the  above  classi- 
fication includes  all  but  a  very  few  substantives,  such  as  il  lapis, 
"  lead  pencil  ",  etc. 


40  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

(i)  Names  of  trees,  metals,  generally  of  mountains, 
months,  and  days: 

V  II  limone,  lemon-tree.  yIl  rame,  copper.  II  San  Salva- 
tore,  (mountain  of)  San  S.  "  L'  Aprile,  April.  "II  martedi, 
Tuesday. 

Remark.  This  rule  is  constantly  crossed  by  that  given 
in  50  (2)  (p.  38).  For  instance,  le  Alpe,  or  Alpi,  'the 
Alps",  probably  because  the  first  form  would  suppose  a 
singular,  Alpa.  Most  names  of  mountains  end  in  o,  or 
else  monte,  "mount",  "mountain",  is  understood: 

L'  |)tna,  or  Monte  IJtna,  "Etna". 

All  the  days  of  the  week  are  masculine  except  la  domenica, 
"Sunday",  and  all  names  of  metals  except  la  latta,  "  tin". 

(2)  Other  parts  of  speech  used  as  nouns: 
/  L'  andare  e  il  venire.     Going  and  coming. 
vfl  mangiare  e  buorio.     The  food  is  good. 
v  Mi  dava  del  si  e  del  nq.      He  would  give  me  no  positive 
answer.     (Literally,  "he  gave  me  yes  and  no".) 

(b)  Feminine  are: 

(1)  Names  of  abstractions: 

La  specie,  the  species.  Ly  ambizione,  ambition.  La 
quie,te,  quiet,  rest. 

(2)  Many  names  of  fruits,1  the  same  word  used  as 
a  masculine  indicating  often  the  tree : 

v/  II  noce,  the  walnut-tree.     La  noce,  walnut,  nut. 

Exceptions:    In  a  certain  number  of    cases  the  same 
masculine  word  designates  as  well  the  fruit  as  the  tree  that 
bears  it : 
\/  II  limone,  lemon-tree,  lemon.2 

1  This  rule  is  also  crossed  by  50  (2),  the  names  of  many  fruits 
being  feminine  by  termination:  L'  arancia,  "the  orange";  una 
mela,  "an  apple".  But  there  exists  also  the  masculine  arancio, 
meaning  as  well  the  tree  as  its  fruit. 

2  Fico  and  dattero,  both  masculine  by  termination,  also  mean 
both  tree  and  fruit. 


NOUNS,  THEIR  GENDER  AND  NUMBER.      41 

52.  A  certain  number  of  nouns  are  indifferently 
masculine  or  feminine;  as,  il  or  la  fine,    'end". 

Remark.  The  pupil  is  advised  to  connect  imme- 
diately with  every  substantive  learned,  whether  its 
gender  be  according  to  ordinary  rule  or  exceptional, 
its  appropriate  article,  and  to  make  them  one  concept. 

Gender  of  Compound  Nouns. 

53.  Most  compound  nouns  retain  the  gender  of  their 
second  component: 

La  mappa,  flat  piece  of  cloth,  table-cover. 
II  mondo,  world.     II  mappamondo,  map  of  the  world. 
Exceptions:    There    are    many,   but  they   are  usually 
explained  by  an  analysis  of  the  word : 
^11   capo,   head,  chief;  vla  caccia,   hunt;     il   capocaccia, 
master  of  the  hunt,  v/  Salvare,  to  save -/la  gente,  people-/  il 
•/salva-ge,nte,  life-preserver. ^  Battere,  to  beat,  thresh  out; 
^la  lana,  wool;  il  battilana,  wool-comber.     (Cf.  51  (a)  (2).) 

Formation  of  the  Feminine. 

54.  (1)  Many  masculines  in  o  and  some  in  e  form 
a  feminine  in  a: 

*  II  ragazzo,  the  boy^  la  ragazza,  the  girl. 
"  Lo  zio,  the  uncle;   la  zia,  the  aunt.    „ 
~11  padrone,  the  master,  proprietor;   la  padrona. 

(2)  Those  in  a  and  some  in  e  take  essa: 

L'  arciduca,  the  archduke;   V  arciduchessa,  archduchess. 
^11  dottore,  doctor;   la  dottoressa. 

II  po§ta,  poet ;    la  poetessa. 
^11  profeta,  prophet ;    la  profetessa. 

(3)  Most  of  those  in  -tore  take  -trice  (dottore  being  an 
exception) : 

y  L'  imperatore,  the  emperor;    V  imperatrice,  the  empress. 
v    II  direttore,  the  director;   la  direttrice. 


42  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

(4)   But  many  masculines  and  feminines  bearing  a 
certain  relation  to  one  another  are  totally  different  in 
form : 
v  1/  u9mo,  man;  la  dcmna,  woman. 


NUMBER. 
General  Rules  for  the  Formation  of  the  Plural. 

55.  Masculines  in  o  and  a,  masculines  and  feminines 
in  e  form  their  plural  by  changing  these  terminations 
to  i: 

II  libro,  i  libri ;  un  ragazzo,  tre  ragazzi ;  il  po§ta,  i  poe,  ti ; 
lo  zio,  gli  zii;  il  padre,  i  padri;  la  madre,  le  madri;  uno 
scolare,  gli  scolari1;  la  lezione,  the  lesson,  le  lezioni;  P  ape, 
the  bee,  le  api,  bees ;  P  ipocrita,  hypocrite,  gP  ipocriti ;  il  mio 
nome,  my  name,  i  nostri  nomi,  our  names. 

Remarks,     (i)  Also  la  mano,  le  mani. 

(2)   In  nouns  in  -io  the  plural  may  be  written  i,  i, 
ii,  or  j.     In  any  case  only  one  i  is  pronounced: 
/Studio,  study;  plural  studi,  studi,  studii,  studj. 

56.  Feminines  in  unaccented  a  form  their  plural  in  e  : 
H  \>2l  tavola,  the  table.    *£>elle  tavole,  some  tables. 

rLa  tua  penna,  thy  pen.    jLe  vostre  penne,  your  pens. 

57.  Monosyllables  and  nouns  accented  on  the  last 
syllable  (whether  the  word  end  in  a  vowel  or  con- 
sonant), also  nouns  ending  in  i  (stressed  or  unstressed) 
and  ie,  do  not  change  in  the  plural: 

y  II  brindisi,   the  health,  toast.    'Fare  molti  brindisi,    to 

drink  many  toasts.     vUn  di,  a  day;     s§tte  di,  seven   days. 

j  Un  barbagianni,  an   owl ;    i  barbagianni.  -   II   re   d'  Italia, 

the   king  of  Italy.  ^1  tre  re,  the   three  kings,    i  Una  me- 

1  These  words  being  familiar  to  the  pupil  are  not  translated. 


NOUNS,  THEIR  GENDER  AND  NUMBER.      43 


< 


Mnjpoli,  a  metropolis;     delle    metr^poli.      Una    b§lla    citta; 
delle  b§lle  citta.  ^ 

II  mio  lapis  §  qui.  My  pencil  is  here.  Dove  sono  i 
ngstri  lapis?  Where  are  our  pencils?  Una  spexie,  a  species. 
Due  specie  di  virtu.  Two  kinds  of  virtues.  La  gru,  crane. 
Ifcco  due  gru.  There  are  two  cranes.  II  caos,  chaos;  i 
caos."  L'  estremita,  the  extremity;  V  estremita,  the  ex- 
tremities. 

58.  Adjectives  form  their  plural  according  to  the 
same  general  rules  as  nouns  (sing,  o  or  e,  pi.  i;   sing,  a, 

pi.  e)1: 

JJcco  il  mio  piccolo  libro  inglese.*  Here  is  my  little  Eng- 
lish book.  Dove  sono  i  tuoi  piccoli  libri  inglesi  ?  Where 
are  thy  little  English  books?  II  libro  §  verde.  The  book 
is  green.  I  libri  sono  verdi.  La  lezione  §  lunga  e  difficile. 
The  lesson  .is  long  and  difficult.  Ma  no,  le  lezioni  non 
sono  ne  lunghe  ne  difficili.  No,  the  lessons  are  neither  long 
nor  difficult. 

(Exercises  VIII  and  IX) 

More  Special  Rules  for  the  Formation  of  the  Plural. 
Irregular  Plural  Forms. 

59.  Masculines  in  -ca  form  their  plural  in  -chi,  the  h 
being  inserted  to  indicate  the  quality  of  the  c2: 

II  duca,  the  duke,  i  duchi;  il  monarca,  the  monarch,  i 
monarchi. 

60.  Feminines  in  -ca  and  -ga  also  show  an  h  in  the 
plural : 

L'  arnica,  the  (female)  friend,  le  amiche;  un'  oca,  a 
goose,  delle  oche;  Ta  verga,  the  rod,  le  verghe 

61.  On  the  same  principle  nouns  of  both  genders 

1  Cf.  42.      For  more  detail  see  Chapter  VIII. 

2  See  16. 


44  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

which  have  an  i  in  the  singular  only  to  indicate  the 
nature  of  a  c  or  g  omit  that  i  in  the  plural1 : 

II  linguaggio,  the  language,  dialect;   i  linguaggi  d'  Italia. 

L'  arancio  §  bello,  the  orange-tree  is  beautiful;  gli  aranci 
sono  belli. 

La  caccia,  the  chase,  hunt;   le  cacce. 

Una  guancia  rosea,  a  rosy  cheek;  le  sue  guance,2  her 
cheeks. 

62.  In  the  case  of  masculines  in  -co  and  -go  the  qual- 
ity of  the  c  or  g  sometimes  remains  the  same  in  the 
plural  and  sometimes  changes.  In  most  cases  the 
accentuation  may  serve  as  a  guide,  nouns  stressed 
on  the  penult  taking  -chi,  -ghi,  those  stressed  on  the 
antepenult  -ci,  -gi: 

Un  giucico,  a  game;  i  giugchi  dei  bambini,  children's 
plays. 

II  castigo  severo,  severe  punishment,  i  castighi. 

Un  Franco,  a  Frank;  i  Franchi.     II  fugco,  fire;  i  fugchi. 

But: 

II  medico,  the  physician;  i  m^'dici  tastano  il  polso,  doctors 
feel  the  pulse.     II  fisiglogo,  the  physiologist;   i  fisiglogi. 

II  coll§gio,  the  college ;  i  colle.gi. 

L*  equivoco,  ambiguous  expression,  gli  equivoci.3 

1  See  22,  foot-note.  This  rule  of  course  does  not  apply  to 
nouns  in  which  the  i  is  accented,  as  il  leggio,  "reading-desk" 
pi.  leggii;  zio,  zii;  la  farmacia,  "pharmacy",  pi.  farmacie.  In 
nouns  like  pcchio,  "eye",  studio,  "study",  etc.,  where  the  i  al- 
though not  accented  is  sounded,  the  orthographical  usage  varies. 
Formerly  occhj,  studj  were  commoner,  now  occhi,  studi  are  more 
usual.      Occhii,  studii  are  also  seen. 

2  But  provincie,  audacie  retain  the  unnecessary  i. 

*The  adjective  equivoco  is  treated  in  the  same  way,  and 
adjectives  in  general  follow  the  rule  as  given  for  nouns:  pubblico, 
"public",  pi.  piibblici,  fern,  pubbliche;  cattplico,  "Catholic", 
cattolici,  cattpliche;  diplomatico,  "diplomatic",  diplomatici,  diploma- 
tiche.     Cf.  116. 


NOUNS,  THEIR  GENDER   AND    NUMBER.  45 

Exceptions:  There  are  many  exceptions  to  this 
rule.  Words  in  -go  follow  it  more  uniformly1  than 
those  in  -co.  The  student  is  advised  to  learn  each 
word  and  its  article  in  the  singular  and  plural  forms. 
The  following  are  the  commonest  exceptions: 

(a)  Words  in  -co  stressed  on  the  penult,  yet  form- 
ing their  plural  in  -ci : 

Un  mio  amico,  a  friend  of  mine;  i  ngstri  amici,  our 
friends. 

]£cco  il  nemico,  here  is  the  enemy;  i  mi§i  nemici  lo 
dicono,  my  enemies  say  so.     II  porco,  the  pig;   due  porci. 

(b)  Words  in  -co  stressed  on  the  antepenult,  yet 
forming  their  plural  in  -chi: 

IJcco  il  suo  carico,  it  is  his  charge ;   i  carichi. 

Un  gran  fondaco,  a  large  warehouse;   molti  fondachi. 

II  manico  del  colte.Ho,  the  knife-handle;   i  manichi. 

Lo  stomaco,  the  stomach;  gli  stomachi.  Lo  stgrico 
della  gu§rra  civile,  the  historian  of  the  civil  war;  gli  stcj- 
richi. 

Iltossico,  the  poison;  dei  tossichi  forti.  II  traffico  della 
ferrovia,  railway-traffic;   i  trafnehi.2 

Remarks,      (i)   Gre,co   as   a   noun  takes   -ci,   as  an 

adjective  chi: 

Un  Gr§co,  a  Greek;    i  Gr§ci,  the  Greeks. 

Un  vino  gr§co,  a  Greek  wine;  vini  grexhi,  Greek  wines. 

So    also   mago    in   the    sense  of    'wizard'    takes  a 


1  Yet  all  those  accented  on  the  antepenult  excepting  sparago, 
"asparagus",  taking  -gi  in  the  plural,  possess  besides  the  forms 
in  -gi  parallel  ones  in  -ghi.  Sparago  has  only  sparagi.  Catalogo, 
"catalogue",  has  only  cataloghi. 

2  Other  exceptions  are  so  rare  as  scarcely  to  belong  here.  The 
student  is  advised  to  consult  his  dictionary  for  plurals  of  such 
nouns. 


46  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

plural  maghi,  but  in  the  expression    'the  three  wise 
men"  it  takes  magi,  i  tre  re  magi.1 

(2)  Fisico,  "natural  philosopher",  and  musico,  "musi- 
cian ",  take  either  ci  or  chi. 

63.  A  certain  number  of  masculines  in  o  form  their 
plural  irregularly  in  a  and  become  feminine.     They 

are: 

II  centinaio,  the  hundred  (about  a  hundred);  ne  v§ngono 
delle  centinaia,  hundreds  of  them  are  coming. 

Un  migliaio,  a  thousand  or  thereabouts;   due  migliaia.2 

Un  paio,  a. pair;   due  paia. 

Un  miglio,  a  mile;   due  miglia.3 

64.  Many  other  masculines  in  o  have  two  plural 
forms,  one  in  a  and  one  in  i : 

II  dito,  finger;  le  dita  (i  diti). 

II  braccio,  the  arm;  I19  due  braccia  (bracci).4 

II  calcagno,  the  heel;  le  calcagna  (le  calcagne,  i  cal- 
cagni). 

II  gingcchio,  the  knee;  le  gin^cchia  (gingcchie)  (i  gin- 
Qcchi) . 

II  labbro,  the  lip;  le  labbra  (i  labbri). 

1  Observe  that  this  latter  form  is  preserved  by  the  Biblical 
phrase,  i.e.,  magi  is  the  Latin  plural,  maghi  being  made  after  the 
singular  whose  hard  g  it  keeps.  Naturally  a  plural  is  made  after 
a  singular  only  where  the  latter  is  the  oftener  used.  In  the  case 
of  greco,  the  noun  plural  was  often  used,  the  adjective  less  often, 
so  only  the  latter  was  re-formed. 

2  Mile,  "a  thousand",  takes  also  le  mila. 

3  Notice  that  these  are  all  nouns  designating  number  in  a  rather 
vague  way.     Centinaj,  miglia j,  are  sometimes  seen. 

4  The  plural  most  commonly  used  is  placed  first.  Braccia,  gin^c- 
chia,  labbra,  orecchie  (notice  this  latter  in  e)  are  generally  em- 
ployed to  denote  two  arms,  etc.,  of  the  same  body.  The  termina- 
tion a  (e)  has  here  a  sort  of  collective  sense.  Compare  German 
nouns  beginning  with  Ge. 


NOUNS,  THEIR  GENDER  AND   NUMBER.  47 

II  membro,  the  member;  le  membra  (membrej,  (i  mem- 
bri). 

L'  orecchio,  the  ear;  le  orrecchie  (orecchia),  (gli  orecchi). 

L'  9SS0,  the  bone;  le  gssa  (osse),  (gli  gssi). 

L'  ugvo,  the  egg;   le  U9va  (gli  ugvi).1 

Remark.  In  some  cases  the  two  forms  are  differ- 
entiated in  meaning : 

II  frutto,  fruit;   le  frutta,  fruits;   i  frutti,  profits. 

II  legno,  wood ;  i  legni,  carriages,  ships ;  le  legna,  firewood. 

II  muro,  wall;   i  muri,  walls;  le  mura,  city- walls. 

II  membro,  the  member. 

Le  braccia  sono  mgmbri  del  cgrpo  umano.  The  arms  are 
members  of  the  human  body.  Una  commissione  di  sette 
membri.     A  committee  of  seven  members. 

But: 

Le  membra  del  cgrpo.  The  members  (all  the  members) 
of  the  body. 

65.  Plurals  altogether  irregular. 
L'  ala,  the  wing;  le  ali  (le  ale). 
Ilbue,  ox;  ibugi. 

II  dio,  god ;   gli  d§i  or  dii  (with  which  the  article  is  always 

gli)- 

La  moglie,  wife ;  le  mogli 

L'  ugmo,  man ;  gli  ugmini. 

PLURAL  OF  COMPOUND  NOUNS. 

66.  Most  compound  nouns  change  their  ending  in 
the  regular  way,  i.e.,  the  second  component  is  made 
plural,  the  first  remaining  unchanged: 

II  mappamondo,  map  of  the  world;   i  mappamondi. 

II  parafugco,  fire-screen;   i  parafugchi. 

1  There  are  many  other  nouns  which  ma}-  take  the  two  plurals. 
Observe  that  such  are  usually  Latin  neuters  which  have  their 
plural  in  a.  In  such  the  i  forms  arc  later.  But  the  f<  imati<  n  has 
extended  to  other  words.     Cf.  50,  (2)    foot-note. 


48  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Exceptions  :  There  are  many,  most  of  which  may, 
however,   be  explained  by  an  analysis   of   the  word 

(cf.53): 

II  capocaccia,  master  of  the  hunt ;   i  capicaccia. 

II  battilana,  wool-comber ;   i  battilana. 

II  portal§ttere,  the  letter-carrier;   i  portalg'ttere. 

But  in  other  cases  the  explanation  must  be  sought 
in  the  fact  that  in  some  compounds  the  components 
are  still  felt  to  be  independent  words  and  are  inflected 
as  such,  while  in  others  one  or  both  of  them  has  lost 
its  individual  life.  In  other  words,  the  fusion  is  more 
or  less  complete: 

II  sordomuto,  the  deaf-mute;   i  sordomuti. 

But: 

La  mezza-luna,  crescent;   le  mezze-lune. 

La  madreperla,  mother-of-pearl;  le  madreperle  or  1§ 
madriperle. 

II  sottolume,  lamp-mat;   i  sottolumi. 

II  rompicapo,  tormentor ;    i  rompicapo. 

{Exercises  X  and  XI.) 

CHAPTER    IV. 

REGULAR  VERBS.1 

67.  All  Italian  verbs  end  in  the  present  infinitive 
in  -re.     The  vowel  preceding  this  syllable  may  be  a, 

1  The  regular  verbs  are  placed  before  the  auxiliaries  because  the 
latter  are  irregular  and  it  is  considered  desirable  for  the  student 
to  familiarize  himself  first  with  the  regular  forms.  Teachers  who 
prefer  to  do  so  may  take  Chapter  V  before  this  one.  The  present 
tenses  of  the  auxiliaries  have  been  given  (Vocabulary  to  Exercises 
I  and  II),  and  isolated  participial  forms  are  also  given  in  other 
vocabularies.  It  being  taken  for  granted  that  the  student  of 
Italian  knows  the  parts,  moods,  tenses,  etc.,  of  verbs,  no  explana- 
tion of  such  matters  is  given. 


REGULAR   VERBS.  49 

e  (accented  or  unaccented),  or  i.  This  vowel,  which 
is  called  the  characteristic  vowel,  recurs  throughout 
the  conjugation. 

Verbs  are  divided  according  to  their  characteristic 
vowel  into: 

(i)  -are  verbs,  or  first  conjugation. 

(2)  -ere  and  '-ere  verbs,  or  second  conjugation. 

(3)  -ire  verbs,  or  third  conjugation: 

Mostrare.  To  show,  point  out.  Temere,  to  fear.  P§r- 
dere,  to  lose.     Partire,  to  go  away,  set  out  {also  to  divide). 

68.  The  role  played  by  the  characteristic  vowel, 
which  constitutes,  as  we  have  seen,  the  main  differ- 
ence between  the  conjugations,  is  seen  in  the  follow- 
ing tables.  The  part  of  the  infinitive  preceding  the 
characteristic  vowel  is  the  stem,  the  characteristic 
vowel  and  what  follows  it  the  ending  of  the  infinitive. 
The  various  parts  of  the  verb  are  formed  by  adding 
various  terminations  to  the  stem. 

TABLE   OF  VERBS. 

INFINITIVE. 

Mostr  are  Tern  ere  P§rd  ere  Part  ire1 

Present  Participle     mostr  ando-      tern  §ndo2     perd  endo      part  endo-' 
Past  Participle  mostr  ato3         tern  uto4        perd  uto         part  ito 

1  Sometimes  transitive  =  "to  divide",  but  usually  intransitive  = 
"to  depart". 

2  There  are  also  forms  mostr  ante,  tern  ente,  part  ente,  which, 
though  really  representing  the  Latin  participles  (the  forms  in 
-ando,  -endo  being  gerunds),  are  much  less  frequent,  and  which 
may  be  regarded  as  verbal  adjectives.  Cf.  III.  Iente  for  -ente 
(=endo)  appears  only  in  finiente,  impediente,  leniente,  obbediente, 
partoriente,  sometimes  aperiente  and  moriente. 

3  The  past  participle  of  a  few  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation  is 
sometimes  contracted,  especially  in  poetry,  showing  o  for  -ato, 
desto  =destato,  etc.     For  compound  tenses  cf.  76. 

4  Notice  that  this  is  the  only  one  of  the  three  conjugations  show- 
ing a  past  participle  with  an  accented  vowel  other  than  its  char- 
acteristic vowel. 


5° 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


Indicative 

PRESENT. 

I1  show,  am  showing,  etc. 


mpstr  o1 


tern  o 


perd  o 


m9str  i2 

tern  i 

perd  i 

m9str  a2 

tern  e 

perd  e 

mostr  iamo 

tern  iamo 

perd  iamo 

mostr  ate2 

tern  ete 

perd  ete 

m9str  ano3 

tern  ono 

pfrd  ono 

part  o,  I  depart,  or 

part  isco,  I  divide 

part  i  or  part  isci 

part  e  or  part  isce 

part  iamo 

part  ite 

part  ono  or  part  iscono 


mostr  ava4 
mostr  avi 
mostr  ava 
mostr  avamo 
mostr  avate 
mostr  avano 


IMPERFECT. 

I  showed,  was  showing,  etc. 

tern  eva5  perd  eva,6  etc.  part  iva5 

tern  evi  part  ivi 

tern  eva  part  iva 

tern  evamo  part  ivamo 

tern  evate  part  ivate 

tern  evano  part  ivano 


1  The  subject  pronoun  is  omitted.     Cf.  88. 

2  For  the  use  of  these  forms  ("you  show")  cf.  91. 

8  This  -o,  as  also  final  -no  in  the  third  plural  future  of  all  con- 
jugations, is  often  dropped:  mpstran,  "they  show",  temeran, 
"they  will  fear",  etc. 

4  0  is  very  frequently  used  (indeed  almost  universally'  where 
there  is  danger  of  ambiguity)  instead  of  this  -a  as  the  final  vowel 
of  the  first  singular  imperfect  of  all  conjugations. 

5  Verbs  of  the  second  and  third  conjugations  (never  of  the 
first)  often  drop  the  v  of  the  imperfect:    io  temea,  egli  partia,  etc. 

8  It  being  sufficiently  evident  that  pfrdere  is  conjugated  precisely 
like  tem6re,  the  forms  of  the  latter  only  will  henceforth  be  given. 
(For  the  parallel  irregular  form  of  pfrdere  see  alphabetical  table, 
p.  .)  The  second  conjugation  comprises  the  verbs  of  both  the 
second  and  third  Latin  conjugations.  In  other  words,  the  second 
conjugation  in  Italian  comprises  verbs  different  in  the  infinitive 
but  alike  in  all  other  parts.  The  third,  on  the  contrary,  comprises 
verbs  alike  in  all  parts  save  the  present  indicative  and  subjunc- 
tive, but  different  in  these,  i.e.,  it  consists  of:  (a)  verbs  of  the 
Latin  fourth  conjugation;  (b)  Latin  inchoatives.  The  latter  are 
now  much  the  more  numerous,  i.e.,  most  -ire  verbs  have  passed 
into  the  inchoative  conjugation. 


REGULAR   VERBS. 


51 


Preterite. 

mostr  ai 

tern  ei  or  tern  etti 

part  ii 

mostr  asti 

tern  esti 

part  isti 

mostr  9  ' 

tern  e1  or  tern  ette 

part  il 

mostr  ammo 

tern  emmo 

part  immo 

mostr  aste 

tem  este 

part  iste 

mostr  arono 

tern  erono  or 
tem  fttero 

Future. 

part  irono 

mostr  er§ 2 

tem  er§ 

part  ir9 

mostr  erai 

tem  erai 

part  irai 

mostr  era 

tem  era 

part  ira 

mostr  eremo 

tem  eremo 

part  iremo 

mostr  erete 

tem  erete 

part  irete 

mostr  eranno 

tem  eranno 

Conditional.3' 

part  iranno 

mostr  erf  i 

tem  erei 

part  irei 

mostr  eresti 

tem  eresti 

part  iresti 

mostr  erebbe 

tem  erfbbe 

part  ir§ bbe 

mostr  eremmo 

tem  eremmo 

part  iremmo 

mostr  ereste 

tem  ereste 

part  ireste 

mostr  er^bbero 

tem  erfbbero 

IMPERATIVE. 

part  ir§bbero 

mpstr  a,4  show  (thou) 

tem  i 

part  i 

mostr  ate5 

tem  ete" 

part  ite 

Negative  form: 

non  mostrare 

non  temere 

non  partire 

non  mostrate 

non  temete 

non  partite 

1  This  accent  is  regularly  written.      Cf.  32  (a). 

2  Notice  that  only  the  first  conjugation  here  shows  another  than 
its  characteristic  vowel,  i.e.,er§  for  ar9.  Since  it  takes  instead  that 
of  the  second  conjugation,  the  first  and  second  are  identical  in  these 
two  tenses. 

3  Some  grammarians  consider  this  rather  a  separate  mood  than 
a  tense  of  the  indicative. 

4  The  infinitive  is  used  for  the  negative  imperative  second  singu- 
lar of  all  verbs.      Cf.  below. 

6  For  the  other  persons  the  corresponding  ones  of  the  present 
subjunctive  are  used:    impstr  i,  "let  him  show",  etc. 


52 


ITALIAN    GRAMMAR. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present 

m9str  i: 

tern  a 

(  part  a,  I  may  depart, 
(  part  isca,  I  may  divide 

m9str  i 

tern  a 

j  part  a,  thou  mayest  depart, 
(  part  isca,  thou  mayest  divide 

mostr  i 

tern  a 

j  part  a,  he  may  depart, 
(  part  isca,  he  may  divide 

mostr  iamo 

tern  iamo 

part  iamo 

mostr  iate 

tern  iate 

part  iate 

mQstr  ino 

tern  ano 

{  part  ano,  they  may  depart, 
(  part  iscano,  they  may  divide 

Imperfc 

:ct. 

mostr  assi 

tern  essi 

part  issi 

mostr  assi 

tern  essi 

part  issi 

mostr  asse 

tern  esse 

part  isse 

mostr  issimo 

tern  essimo 

part  issimo 

mostr  aste 

tern  este 

part  iste 

mostr  assero 

tern  Assero 

part  issero 

Remarks  on  Regular  Verbs  of  the  First  Conjugation. 

69.  (1)  Verbs  ending  in  -care  and  -gare  insert  an 
h  after  the  c  or  g  before  endings  beginning  with  e  or  i 
in  order  to  mark  the  preservation  of  the  hard  sound2: 

Dimenticare,  to  forget;  non  dimentichi,  do  not  forget; 
dimenticher§,  I  shall  forget.  Pagare,  to  pay;  non  desidero 
che  paghiate  ni§nte,  I  do  not  desire  that  you  pay  anything; 
paghino  loro,  let  them  pay. 

(2)  Verbs  in  -ciare,  -giare,  sciare  in  which  the  i  is 
inserted  merely  to  keep  the  c,  g,  sc  soft  before  the 
next  sounded  vowel,  which  is  a,  drop  this  i  in  parts 
where  the  termination  contains  an  i  or  an  e3: 

Cominciare,  to  begin,  commence;    comincio,   I  am  be- 

1  The  subjunctive  present  is  indicated  by  a  change  of  the  charac- 
teristic vowel,  the  first  conjugation  taking  that  theretofore  char- 
acteristic of  the  third,  the  third  with  the  second,  that  of  the  first. 

2  Cf.  16  and  59. 

8  Cf.  22,  foot-note  3>  and  61. 


REGULAR  VERBS.  53 

ginning;  comincerebbe,  he  would  begin.  Passeggiare.  to 
take  a  walk;  passe'ggino,  let  them  go  to  walk ;  passeggerg 
anch'  io,  I  shall  also  take  a  walk.  Lasciare,  to  leave, 
let;  lasci  stare,  let  it  alone.  Bruciare,  to  burn;  brucera,  it 
will  burn. 

(3)  Verbs  in  -chiare  and  -gliare  drop  the  i  only 
before  an  i  in  the  termination,  not  before  an  e : 

Picchiare,  to  knock;  picchi  (not  picchii),  thou  knockest, 
but  picchier^,  I  shall  knock.1  Consigliare,  to  counsel;  con- 
siglier§bbe,  he  would  advise;   consigli,  let  him  advise. 

(4)  Of  other  verbs  in  -iare  those  retain  this  i: 

(a)  In  which  it  has  in  the  infinitive  a  secondary  accent, 
the  secondary  accent  becoming  in  the  indicative  present 
first  singular  the  principal  one: 

Desiare,2to  desire;  io  desio,  tu  desii.  Spiare,  to  spy,  io 
spio,  che  spiino. 

(b)  In  which  there  might  be  confusion  with  another 
verb: 

Odiare,  to  hate,  tu  gdii,  not  90H,  which  latter  =  "  thou 
nearest"  (from  udire). 

(c)  Appropriare,  contrariare,  sentenziare,  spaziare,  strabili- 
are  also  commonly  show  the  ii.  Others  drop  the  i  before 
an  ending  beginning  with  i,  retaining  it  before  e: 

Annoiare,3  to  annoy;  tu  anngi,  tu  annoierai. 

(5)  Certain  verbs  having  an  open  o  in  the  first  syl- 
lable diphthongize  it  where  it  receives  the  accent  (i.e., 
in  the  three  persons  of  the  singular  and  third  person 
plural  of  the  present  indicative  and  subjunctive  and 
in  the  imperative  second  person  singular) : 

Giocare,4  to  play,  io  giuoco. 

1  The  second  i  in  picchien)    is  distinctly  heard. 

2  That  this  i  has  a  secondary  accent  is  evident  from  the  fact 
that  the  verb  is  a  contracted  form  of  desiderare. 

3  This  i  is  really  a  semi-consonant. 

4  Besides    giocare,  arrolare,  infocare,  rotare,  and    sonare    exhibit 


54  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

Remarks  on  Regular  Verbs  of  the  Second  Conjugation. 

70.  (1)  Verbs  ending  in  -cere  and  -gere  insert  an  i 
to  keep  the  c  or  g  soft  before  the  u  of  the  past  partici- 
ple, not,  however,  before  terminations  beginning  with 
a  or  o,  in  which  latter  case  the  c  or  g  becomes  hard : 

Pascere,1  to  feed,  pasture,  pasco,  ch'  egli  pasca,  pasciuto. 

(2)  There  are  but  few  regular  verbs  in  this  conju- 
gation,2 and  these  present,  for  the  most  part,  the 
double  forms  given  in  the  table  for  the  preterit.  The 
forms  in  -ei,  -e,  -erono  are  really  the  regular  ones,  cor- 
responding to  the  -ai  of  the  first  conjugation,  -ii  of  the 
third.  The  following  verbs  and  their  compounds  take 
only  the  -ei,  -e, -erono:  battere,  comp^tere,  conv§rgere, 
div§rgere,  lucere,  mescere,  mi§tere,  pascere,  prudere,  rip§- 
tere,  stridere,  t§ssere,  tondere3;  also  compiere  and  empi- 
ere  when  of  this  conjugation  (they  are  frequently  in- 
flected according  to  the  third). 

this  change,  also  frequently  rinnovare  and  tonare,  and,  rarely, 
provare  and  trovare.  Notare,  "to  notice",  never  does,  in  order, 
probably,  not  to  be  confused  with  nuotare,  "to  swim".  The  same 
may  be  said  of  votare  and  vuotare. 

1  This  and  mescere  are  the  only  regular  verbs  exhibiting  all 
these  forms.  Of  the  irregular  some  exhibit  them  all,  as,  crescere, 
cresco,  cresciuto  (but  pret.  crebbi) ;  conoscere,  conosco,  conosciuto 
(but  pret.  conobbi) ;  others  only  a  part,  as  tacere,  taccio,  taeiuto; 
piangere,  piango,  pret.  piansi;  past  participle  pianto,  etc.  See 
Table  of  Irregular  Verbs. 

2  The  entirely  regular  are:  battere,  cedere,  compftere,  credere, 
fendere,  gemere,  godere,  mescere,  miftere,  pascere,  p§ndere,  pfrdere, 
premere,  ricevere,  rifl^ttere,  ripftere,  splfndere,  temere,  tondere,  vfn- 
dere,  also  cdmpiere  and  fmpiere  when  of  this  conjugation.  See 
Table.  It  will  be  seen  later  that  the  great  majority  of  the  irregu- 
lar verbs  are  '-ere  verbs  of  this  conjugation. 

3  Many  of  these  verbs  are  defective. 


REGULAR  VERBS.  55 

(3)  Some  verbs  having  an  open  o  in  the  first  sylla- 
ble   present   the    same    phenomenon    remarked  under 

69,  (5): 

Cu^cere    or  cgcere,  to  cook;   C119C0,  coceva.     Mu^vere   or 

m^vere,  to  move;   muQVO,  moveva. 

These  verbs  are  otherwise  irregular. 

Remarks  on  Regular  Verbs  of  the  Third  Conjugation. 

71.  Most  verbs  of  this  conjugation  take  in  the  pres- 
ent indicative  and  subjunctive  the  -isco  endings,  not 
having  the  -o,  -i,  -e  endings  at  all.  The  following  is 
the  model  for  their  present  tenses. 

Capire,  to  understand. 

capisco,  I  understand,  capiamo 

capisci  capite 

capisce  capiscono 

capisca,  I  may  understand,  capiamo 

capisca  capiate 

capisca  capiscano 
capisci,  understand  (thou).1 

(a)  The  following  regular  verbs  take  the  o  forms 
only: 

Dormire,  to  sleep ;  fuggire,  to  fly,  flee;  partire  in  the  sense 
of  "to  depart";  pentire,2  sentire,  to  feel,  hear;  servire,  to 
serve;  sortire,3  in  the  sense  of  "to  go  out";  vestire,  to 
clothe. 

1  These  forms  are  derived  from  the  Latin  inchoatives,  hence  per- 
haps their  use  in  the  present  only,  "I  understand, — am  beginning 
to  understand". 

2  Pentire  is  a  reflexive  verb.      Sec  106. 

3  Sortire,  "to  draw  lots",  as  partire,  "to  divide",  takes  the  -isco 
forms.  Notice  that  in  both  cases  it  is  the  transitive  verb  that 
takes  the  -isco  forms. 


56  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

(b)  The  following  verbs  may  take  either  termina- 
tion, but  usually  take  -isco : 

Abborrire,  to  abhor;  bollire,  to  boil;  inghiottire,  to  swal- 
low;  languire,  to  languish;  mentire,  to  lie;  muggire,  to 
bellow;  nutrire,  to  nourish;  ruggire,  to  roar;  sorbire,  to 
sip;  tossire,  to  cough;  also  verbs  in  -vertire,  as  avvertire, 
divertire,  etc.1 

(c)  Proseguire,  "&o  prosecute,  pursue",  has  usually 
pros^guo,  but  sometimes  proseguisco. 

72.  The  verb  is  more  interrogative  by  placing  the 
pronoun  (if  expressed)  or  other  subject  after  it: 

Voi  mostrate,  you  show;  mostrerete  voi?  Shall  you 
show? 

Non  partira  vgstro  frat§llo?  Will  not  your  brother  go 
away? 

73.  The  imperfect  tense  is  used  to  express  unfin- 
ished, habitual,  or  repeated  action,  the  preterit  to 
express  that  which  was  finished  at  a  certain  time, 
which  time  is  quite  past2: 

Io  mostravo  il  libro  quando  entrg.  I  was  showing  the 
book  when  he  entered. 

(Exercises  XII  and  XIII.) 

CHAPTER  V. 

AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

74.  The  principal  auxiliary  verbs  in  Italian  are 
§'ssere,  "to  be",  and  aver e,  "to  have".  Both  are  irregular, 
but  especially  the  first. 

1  A  number  of  irregular  verbs,  such  as  aprire,  coprire,  offrire, 
soffrire,  cucire,  and  its  compounds,  also  belong  to  this  class.  See 
Table. 

2  Cf.  226  and  228. 


AUXILIARY  VERBS. 


57 


INFINITIVE. 

l£ssere 


Present  Participle. 

Past  Participle. 

ess^ndo 

stato 

INDICATIVE 

Present. 

Imperfect, 

Preterite.                       Future. 

sono 

e,ra 

fui 

sar9 

se,i 

eri 

fosti                        sarai 

1 

era 

fu 

sara 

siamo 

eravamo 

fummo                   saremo 

si§te 

eravate 

foste                       sarete 

sono 

§rano 

furono                    saranno 

( 

:ONDITIONAL. 

IMPERATIVE. 

sar§i 

sii  ( 

sia),  be  (thou) 

saresti 

siate,  be  (you) 

sar§bbe 

saremmo 

sareste 

sarfbbero 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

Imperfect. 

sia 

fossi 

sia 

fossi 

sia 

fosse 

siamo 

fossimo 

siate 

fpste 

siano1 

fossero 

INFINITIVE. 

Avere 

Present  Participle. 

Past  Participle. 

av§ndo 

avuto 

INDICATIVE. 

Present 

Imperfect. 

Preterite. 

Future.                 Conditional 

ho 

aveva2 

ebbi 

avrp                    avre,  i  * 

hai 

avevi 

avesti 3 

avrai                  avresti 

ha 

aveva 

§bbe 

avra                  avr^bbe 

abbiamo 

avevamo 

avemmo 

avremo              avremmo 

avete 

avevate 

aveste 

avrete                avreste 

hanno 

avevano 

§bbero 

avranno             avrfbbero 

1  Sieno  is  also  used. 

2  These  forms  are  regular. 

3  This  and  the  first  and  second  plural  are  regular. 

These  forms  are  regular,  averfi  being  contracted  into  avrei,  etc. 
Cf.  174  and  177. 


5* 


ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


IMPERATIVE. 

abbi 
abbiate 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Present. 
abbia 

abbi  (abbia) 
abbia 
abbiamo 
abbiate 
abbiano 


Imperfect.1 

avessi 

avessi 

avesse 

avessimo 

aveste 

avessero 

75.  Each  of  these  verbs  forms  its  compound  tenses 
by  compounding  with  itself. 

Sono  stato  qui.     I  have  been  here. 

Sono  state  qui  le  Sue  sore,lle?     Have  your  sisters  been  here? 

Aveva  avuto  il  denaro.     He  had  had  the  money. 

Use  of  Auxiliary  Verbs. 

76.  Avere  +  the  past  participle  forms  the  compound 
tenses  of  all  transitive  and  of  most  intransitive  verbs. 
Following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  compound  tenses  of 
mostrare : 

avere  mostrato,  to  have  shown. 
ave,ndo  mostrato,  having  shown, 
ho  mostrato,  /  hare  shown,  etc. 
aveva  mostrato,  /  had  shown ,  etc. 
avr§  mostrato,  I  shall  have  shown, 

etc. 
avre,i     mostrato,    /  should  have 

shown,  etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Past  indefinite,    abbia  mostrato,  /  may  have  shown,  etc. 
Pluperfect.  avessi  mostrato,  /  might  havi  shown, etc. 

77.  Essere  +  the  past  participle  forms  the  compound 
tenses  of  all  reflexive  and  reciprocal  verbs  and  of  some 

1  Which  is  regular  throughout. 


Infinitive. 
Past  participle. 
Past  indefinite. 
Pluperfect. 
Future  anterior. 

Conditional   anterior. 


AUXILIARY    VERBS. 


50 


intransitives.  The  passive  voice  of  transitive  verbs 
is  also  formed  from  §'ssere-Lthe  past  participle. 

Following  arc  synopses  of  a  passive  verb  and  of  the 
compound  tenses  of  an  intransitive  which  takes  e'ssere: 
(For  reflexive  verbs,  see  102.) 

(a)   Model  passive  verb: 

Infinitive.  e'ssere  amato,  to  be  loved. 

Present  participle.         ess^ndo  amato,  being  loved. 

Past  participle.  esse,ndo  stato  amato,  having  been 

loved. 


Present. 
Imperfect. 
Preterite. 
Future. 


INDICATIVK. 

sono  amato,  /  am  loved,  etc. 
§ra  amato,  /  was  loved,  etc. 
fui  amato,  /  was  loved,  etc. 
sar$  amato,  /  shall  be  loved,  etc. 

IMPERATIVE. 

sii  (sia)  amato,  be  thou  loved;  siate 
amato,  be  ye  {yon)  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present.  sia  amato,'  /  may  be  loved,  etc. 

Imperfect.  fossi  amato,  /  mightbe  loved,  etc. 

(b)  Model  intransitive  compounding  with  e'ssere: 


Infinitive. 
Past  participle. 

Past  indefinite. 
Pluperfect. 
Past  anterior. 
Future  anterior. 
Conditional  anterior 


§'ssere  andato,  to  have  gone. 
esse.ndo  andato,  having  '/our. 

INDICATIVE. 

sono  andato,  /  have  gone,  etc. 
e,ra  andato,  /  had  gone,  etc. 
fui  andato,  /  had  gone,  etc. 
sari)  andato,  /  shall  have  gone,  etc. 
sare,i  andato,   /  should  have  gone, 
etc. 


60  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Past  indefinite.  sia  andato,  /  may  have  gone,  etc. 

Pluperfect.  fossi  andato,  /  might  have  gone,  etc. 

Remarks,  (i)  It  will  be  observed  that  g'ssere  is 
more  frequent  than  the  English  "to  be",  although  it 
is  not  used  to  express  the  progressive  present,  English 
"  I  am  showing",  etc.,  which  is  to  be  translated  simply 
mostro.1 

(2)  A  past  participle  used  with  §ssere  to  form  the 
passive  always  agrees  with  the  subject  of  the  verb. 
If  the  verb  be  intransitive  by  nature  (compounding 
with  §ssere  in  the  sense  of  "to  have")  it  also  agrees 
with  the  subject.  In  the  case  of  reflexive  or  recip- 
rocal verbs  it  may,  but  does  not  always,  agree.  (Cf. 
103  and  114.) 

|)  molto  amata.     She  is  much  beloved. 

Sono  partiti.     They  have  departed. 

Ci  siamo  amati.     We  have  loved  one  another. 

Auxiliary  with  Intransitive  Verbs. 

78.  All  really  transitive  verbs,  i.e.,  all  verbs  that 
require  a  direct  object  to  complete  their  meaning, 
form  their  compound  tenses  with  avere,  and  have  a 
passive  voice  formed  from  §ssere.  All  reflexive  -or 
reciprocal  verbs  form  their  compound  tenses  with 
§'ssere.  (Cf.  102.)  All  really  intransitive  verbs,  i.e., 
verbs  which  cannot  take  a  direct  object  and  which 
have  no  passive  voice,  form  their  compound  tenses 
with  §ssere,  with  the  exception  of  the  verbs: 

1  Stare  and  andare,  however,  are  sometimes  used  to  express  the 
progressive  action.     Cf.  81  (a)  and  (J)  (1). 


AUXILIARY  VKRBS.  6l 

desinare,  to  dine.  sbadigliare,  to  yawn. 

dormire,  to  sleep.  sonnecchiare,  to  sjumber,  doze, 

passeggiare,  to  walk.  sternutare,  to  sneeze. 

79.  The  commonest  necessarily  intransitive  verbs 
which  always  take  §'ssere  are : 

andare ,  to  go .  morire ,  to  die . 

arrivare,  to  arrive.  nascere,  to  be  born, 

avvenire,  to  happen.  parere,  to  appear. 

cadere,  to  fall.  pervenire,  to  arrive. 

comparire,  to  appear.  rimanere,  to  remain. 

cdrrere,  to  run.  riuscire,  to  succeed. 

divenire,  to  become.  uscire,  to  go  out. 

venire,  to  come. 

(a)  A  certain  number  of  intransitive  verbs  com- 
pound sometimes  with  avere  and  sometimes  with  §ssere, 
the  general  distinction  being  that  they  take  avere  when 
action  is  denoted,  while  §ssere  denotes  the  state  or 
condition  resulting  from  action.  With  avere  the  verb 
has  usually  an  object,  often  an  infinitive,  to  complete 
its  meaning,  with  §ssere  it  has  not. 

80.  Verbs  which  take  either  avere  or  §'ssere  are : 
camminare,  to  walk.  partire,  to  depart,  divide, 
cessare,  to  cease.  passare,  to  pass. 
crescere,  to  grow.  perire,  to  perish. 
degenerare,  to  degenerate.       ritornare,  to  return. 
dimorare,  to  dwell.  scappare,  to  escape. 
fuggire,  to  flee.  scendere,  to  descend. 
giungere,  to  arrive.  succ^dere,  to  succeed,  happen. 
invecchiare,  to  grow  old.          tacere,  to  be  silent. 

vivere,  to  live. 

La  gu§rra  §  cessata.     The  war  has  ceased. 

La  gu§rra  ha  cessato  di  devastare  i  paesi.     The  war  has 

ceased  to  devastate  the  lands. 


62  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Other  Verbs  Used  as  Auxiliaries. 

81.  Other  verbs  sometimes  used  instead  of  §ssere  for 
English  "to  be"  are: 

(a)  Stare,  "to  stand",  which  always  expresses  a 
state,  frequently  a  state  of  health. 

Stava  parlando.     I  was  talking. 
Come  sta ?     How  are  you,  how  do  you  do? 
Sta  male.     He  is  not  well. 

Stare  per  or  §ssere  per  (followed  by  an  infinitive)  means 
"to  be  about  to  do  a  thing". 

Sto  per  mostrarlo.     I  am  just  going  to  show  it. 

(b)  Venire,  "to  come",  which  is  sometimes  used  in 
the  formation  of  the  simple  tenses  of  the  passive1: 

L'ombre.llo  venne  trovato.     The  umbrella  was  found. 

(c)  Rimanere,  "to  remain",  is  used  like  venire,  but 
less  frequently: 

Rimango  arrestato.  I  am  arrested  (  =  1  remain  in  a 
state  of  arrest). 

(d)  Andare,2  "to  go",  is  used  to  express: 
(i)  A  state  or  condition: 

Che  andate  cercando  ?  What  are  you  looking  for? 
(Literally,     "What  do  you  go  seeking?") 

(2)  Duty  or  obligation: 

Non  va  detto  cosi.  That  must  not  be  said,  it  cannot  be 
so  expressed. 

Se  aveva  fattob§ne,andava  incorragito.  If  he  had  dene 
well  he  ought  to  have  been  encouraged. 

1  Venire  expresses  the  action  indicated  by  the  principal  verb  more 
than  does  fssere,  and  is  often  preferred  to  it  in  elegant  style.  Neither 
venire  nor  rimanere  are  ever  used  in  the  compound  tenses.  II  libro 
§  venuto  trovato,  for  §  stato  trovato,  would  be  barbarous. 

2  Notice  that,  like  stare,  andare  when  it  expresses  a  state  takes 
the  present  participle. 


AUXILIARY  VERBS.  63 

L'  amicizia  va  coltivata  con  tutta  la  possibile  delicatezza. 
1/  amore  va  superato  cglla  forza.  Frienclsliip  must  be  cul- 
tivated with  all  possible  delicacy.  Love  must  be  con- 
quered by  force. 

82.  Dovere,  'to  owe",  potere,  'to  be  able",  volere, 
"to  wish",  fare,  'to  do",  "make",  and  sometimes 
sapere,  "to  know",  must  be  classed  as  modal  auxil- 
iaries, since  they  have,  when  followed  by  an  infinitive, 
a  sort  of  auxiliary  function.  "Ought",  'should", 
"must",  etc.,  are  rendered  by  the  appropriate  tenses 
of  dovere;  "may",  'might",  'can",  'could",  by 
those  of  potere;  'will",  'would",  when  they  express 
volition,  not  simple  futurity,  by  those  of  volere  ;  '  can  ", 
"could",  etc.,  by  those  of  sapere.  These  verbs  are  all 
irregular,1  but  not  defective  as  are  the  English  modal 
auxiliaries,  so  that  shades  of  meaning,  as  well  as  time 
of  action,  may  be  more  exactly  rendered  by  them  than 
by  the  English  equivalents2: 

D§vo  partire.     I  ought  to  go,  must  go  (in  the  present). 

Dovr§i  partire.  I  ought  to  go  (which  does  not  mean  "  I 
must  go  ",  and  is  less  precise  as  to  time  than  devo  partire)3. 

Doveva  partire.      I  had  to  go. 

Avr§i  dovuto  partire.      I  ought  to  have  gone. 

Pgsso  partire  ?     May  I  go  ? 

Vgglio  partire.    I  will  go. 

Non  so,  nuotare.    I  cannot  swim. 

II  bambino  non  sapeva  ancora  discorrere.  The  child 
could  not  yet  talk. 


1  See  Table  of  Irregular  Verbs. 

2  Compare  the  German   modal   auxiliaries  kbnnen.  mbgen.  etc., 
which  are  also  complete  in  their  conjugations. 

3  One  would  say  devo  partire  perhaps  on  rising  to  go,  dovrei  par- 
tire without  going  immediately. 


64  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Remark.  The  same  idea  of  ability  rendered  in  the 
last  two  examples  by  sapere  is  sometimes  idiomatically 
expressed  by  g'ssere  bugno  a: 

Sono  bugna  a  sonare  il  pianofgrte.  I  can  play  the 
piano. 

83.  Fare,  "to  do",  "to  make",  and  lasciare,  "to 
let",  are  auxiliaries  in  such  expressions  as:  Farg  fare 
un  abito,  "I  am  going  to  have  a  coat  made";  lascia 
fare,  "let  it  be  done",  "let  it  be";  V  hg  fatto  fare,  "I 
have  had  it  done". 

Remarks,  (i)  Fare  is  used  to  express  the  idea 
rendered  in  English  by  the  verb  "to  be"  in  such  ex- 
pressions as  molto  tempo  fa,  "it  is  a  long  time  ago": 
fa  bgl  tgmpo,  "it  is  beautiful  weather".  But  g'ssere 
is  used  in:  §  1'  una,  "it  is  one  o'clock"  ;  sono  le  undici, 
"it  is  eleven  o'clock". 

(2)  "There  is",  "there  are",  must  be  translated 
where  §cco  is  not  used  by  vi  e,  vi  sono,  c'1^,  ci  sono : 

Vi  sono  tre  bottiglie.  There  are  three  bottles.  C'e 
molto  da  fare.     There  is  a  great  deal  to  do. 

Idiomatic  Uses  of  Avere. 

84.  Avere  is  used  in  the  following  expressions  where 
the  English  uses  the  verb  "to  be": 

avere  bisogna  (di)2,  to  be  avere  freddo,  to  be  cold. 

in  need  of,  to  need.  avere  paura,  to  be  afraid. 

avere  fame,  to  be  hungry.  avere  vergogna,  to  be  ashamed. 

avere  sete,  to  be  thirsty.  avere   qualche  cosa,  to  be  the 

avere  caldo,  to  be  warm.  matter  with. 

Avevate  paura?     Were  you  afraid?  Ng,  aveva  fame.  No, 

I  was  hungry. 

1  For  ci,  cf.  36,  note  4.  2  Cf.  212  (2). 


PERSONAL   PRONOUNS.  65 

C9s'  ha?  Non  I19  nie,nte.  What  is  wrong  with  you? 
Nothing. 

Also: 

(a)   In  expressions  denoting  age: 

Che  eta  ha?  How  old  is  he?  Ha  s§tte  anni.  He  is 
seven. 

(6)  With  da  and  an  infinitive  to  express  obligation, 
=  "  to  have  to  " : 

Hg  da  parlare.     I  must  speak. 

Aveva  da  partire.     He  had  to  go. 

{Exercises  XIV  and  XV.) 

CHAPTER   VI. 

PERSONAL    PRONOUNS.      DISJUNCTIVE    PERSONAL 

PRONOUNS. 

85.  There  are  in  Italian  two  kinds  of  personal  pro- 
nouns: (1)  the  tonic  or  stressed;  (2)  the  atonic  or 
unstressed.  The  tonic  may  be  separated  in  the  sen- 
tence from  the  verb,  or  may  appear  without  a  verb. 
This  fact  that  they  are  not  joined  to  the  verb  has  given 
them  the  name  of  disjunctive,  absolute,  or  independent 
pronouns.  The  atonic  forms  are  so -dependent  on  the 
verb  that  they  always  appear  joined  to  it.  They  are 
therefore  called  conjunctive  or  dependent  personal  pro- 
nouns. I 

Remark.     The  nature  of  these  two  classes  of  pronouns1] 
may  be  made  clearer  by  the  following  examples:    Mgstro, 

1  Which  are  simply  the  different  forms  of  one  and  the  same  Latin 
word,  developed  under  different  circumstances,  me  emphasized 
giving  me,  unemphatic  mi.  Cf.  the  different  pronunciation  of 
English  "me"  and  "him"  in  "give  it  to  me",  "give  it  to  him", 
and  "give  it  to  me,  not  to  him". 


66  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

" I  am  showing" .  Chi  mostra?  "Who  is  showing?"  Io! 
Io  mgstro.  "I!  I  am  showing."  Che  C9sa  mgstra? 
"What  are  you  showing?'  Mgstro  me,1  "I  am  showing 
myself."  All  of  these  pronouns,  emphasized  in  English, 
are  rendered  in  Italian  by  the  disjunctive  forms.  But  in 
Mi  Bistro,  "  I  am  showing  myself" ;  Che  co,sa  fai?"  What 
are  you  doing?'  Mi  ti  m9Stro,  "I  am  showing  myself  to 
you",  there  is  no  stress  laid  upon  the  pronoun,  therefore 
in  Italian  the  conjunctive  forms  are  used. 

Disjunctive  Personal  Pronouns. 

86.  The  disjunctive  pronouns  are2: 

io,  I  noi,  we,  us 

me,  me 

tu,  thou  voi,  you 

te,  thee 

egli,3  lui,  esso,  he  eglino,6  loro,  essi,  they 

lui,  esso,  him  loro,  essi,  them 

ella,4  le,i,  essa,5  she  (you)  elleno,5  loro,  esse,  they 

le,i,  essa,5  her  (you)  loro,  esse,  them 

se,  himself,  herself,  themselves 

87.  These  forms  are  always  more  or  less  emphatic. 
They  are  used: 

(a)  As  the  subject  of  a  verb. 

(b)  As  the  object  either  emphasized  or  governed  by 
a  preposition. 

1  Or  me  stesso. 

2  The  personal  pronouns  are  the  only  real  declension  forms  left 
in  Italian. 

3  Sometimes  shortened  into  ei  or  gli. 

4  Sometimes  shortened  to  la:  Ti  raccomando  una  bupna  s^dia. — Se 
la  vi  sara.     Be  careful  to  get  a  good  carriage. — If  there  is  one. 

5  Ella,  l§i,  are  used  for  "  you",  but  essa  is  not. 
0  Seldom  used  in  modern  Italian. 


DISJUNCTIVE   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS.  67 

(c)   Absolutely,  ie.,  standing  alone: 

Chi  §  stato  li  ?     Who  has  been  there  ? 

Io  vi  sono  stato.     I  have  been  there. 

Chi  ha  visto?  Whom  did  you  see?  (Literally:  "Have 
you  seen"?) 

H9  visto  lui  e  l§i.     I  have  seen  him  and  her. 

V§nga  con  me.  Come  with  me.  Io !  Ma  che  pensa  ? 
I !  But  what  are  you  thinking  of  ? 

Remarks  on  the  Disjunctive  Pronouns. 

88.  Since  the  Italian  verb  indicates  by  its  ending  the 
number  and  person  of  its  subject,  a  pronominal  sub- 
ject is  usually  not  expressed.1  Where  it  is  expressed 
there  is  always  more  or  less  emphasis.  (See  85, 
Remark,  and  87,  with  examples  under  both.) 

89.  The  personal  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent 
in  person,  gender,  and  number.  Since  all  Italian 
nouns  are  either  masculine  or  feminine  (39),  a  pro- 
noun referring  to  an  inanimate  object  must  be  of  the 
gender  of  that  object: 

E  i  mied  abiti,  dove  sono?  And  my  clothes  ?  Where  are 
they?     Essi  sono  qui.     They  are  here.2 

90.  A  pronoun  having  two  antecedents  of  different 
gender  is  put  in  the  masculine  plural: 

Dove  sono  la  penna  e  il  lapis?     Essi  sono  sulla  tavola. 

91.  The  pronouns  of  the  second  person  wTere  origi- 
nally tu,    "thou",   for  the   singular,   and  voi,      'ye", 

1  The  antecedent  is  supposed  to  be  as  clearly  pointed  out  by  the 
verb  as  by  a  pronoun. 

2  It  is  not  often  necessary  to  express  a  pronoun  referring  to  an 
inanimate  object.  Egli,  ella  may  be  used  as  well  as  esso,  essa, 
though  strictly  speaking  the  former  should  rather  refer  to  persons. 
The  latter  refer  to  both  persons  and  things. 


68  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

"you",  for  the  plural.     At  present  the  following  are 

in  use: 

tu 

q-  V9i  Plur    !V9i 

SinS-    Ella1  JLoro1 

[Up 

Of  these  tu  (generally  to  be  translated  'you")  is 
used  in  addressing  a  near  relative,  an  intimate  friend, 
or  a  child;  also  in  elevated  or  poetical  language  and 
to  express  anger  or  scorn ;  voi  as  a  plural  in  addressing 
two  or  more  relatives,  friends,  or  children,  also  as  a 
singular  somewhat  less  familiar  than  tu  yet  less  formal 
than  Ella,  Le,i,  used,  for  instance,  in  addressing  ser- 
vants. Its  use  is  also  frequent  in  poetry,  and  in  the 
south  of  Italy  it  is  more  frequently  employed  than 
Ella  even  in  speaking  with  strangers.  Excepting  in 
the  south  the  ordinary  form  of  address  is  Ella,  plural 
Loro.  These  forms  were  originally  of  the  third  per- 
son, representing  some  such  antecedent  as  Signoria, 
Vossignoria,  "Your  Highness",  Eccell§nza,  Altezza, 
etc.  All  such  words  being  feminine,  the  pronoun  was 
naturally  feminine.2     (Cf.  89.) 

Vossignoria  vuol  cenare?     Your  Highness  wishes  to  sup  ? 

Ella  §  servita.     She  is  served  (i.e.,  "you  are  served"). 

(a)  Ella  is  the  proper  grammatical  form  in  this  case, 
but  Le,i,  really  a  dative  form,  has  come  into  common 
use,  supplanting  Ella,  especially  in  conversation. 

Loro  (Lor  signori,  Lor  signore)  is  the  corresponding 
plural : 

Loro  verranno.     You  will  come. 

1  Also  written  with  a  small  initial,  ella,  lei,  loro. 

2  An  adjective  or  participle  qualifying  Ella,  Lei  takes  the  gender 
of  the  person  represented  by  that  pronoun.  Thus  one  would  say 
in  speaking  to  a  man:   L§i  §  troppo  bu9no  {not  bu9na). 


DISJUNCTIVE   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS.  69 

This  use  of  the  third  for  the  second  person  corre- 
sponds in  origin  to  our  own  formal  usage,  but  is  much 
more  extended  and  not  really  formal  now.  It  is  the 
ordinary  form  of  address  and  the  only  one  the  for- 
eigner is  likely  ever  to  hear  addressed  to  him  or  t<  >  need 
when  speaking.  He  should  learn  to  recognize  all 
the  forms  and  the  shades  of  meaning  conveyed  by 
them,  but  should  in  practice  confine  himself  to  the 
Ella,  L§i,  Loro  forms: 

E  tu  figliucilo  mio,  che  diventerai?  And  what  will  be- 
come of  you,  my  son?  0  figli  mi§i,  voi  che  siete  stati  la 
mia  speranza.  O  my  children,  you  who  have  been  my 
hope. 

Come  state,  poverino?     How  do  you  do,  you  poor  man? 

E  L^i,1  Signor  Bardi,  come  sta?  And  how  do  you  do, 
Mr.  B.? 

Stanno  bene  Loro  tutti?     Are  you  all  well? 

92.  Me,  te,  se  are  often  compounded  with  the  prepo- 
sition con:  meco,  "with  me",  seco,  l  by  himself"2, 
etc.  Occasionally  con  is  placed  also  before  this  com- 
pound3 : 

Vi§ni  meco  (con  meco).     Come  with  me. 

(a)  Esso  may  also  be  used  redundantly  with  meco,  teco, 
seco;   (con)  noi,  voi,  lui,  lei,  loro: 

Restate  con  esso  noi.     Stay  with  us. 

E  con  esso  lui  se  n'  and§  nel  giardino.  And  he  went 
away  with  him  into  the  garden. 

1  This  pronoun  is  omitted  under  the  same  circumstances  as  the 
others,  the  context  showing  whether  the  verb  is  to  be  translated 
with  "you",  "he",  or  "she"  as  subject. 

2  Seco  may  =  con  lui:  Ho  inteso,  parlerQ  seco.  I  understand,  I 
shall  speak  with  him.  Corresponding  forms  of  the  plural  are  the 
rare,  poetical  nosco  and  vpsco  (compounds  not  of  noi  and  voi,  but 
of  the  archaic  nos,  vos. 

3  Cf.  Spanish  conmigo,  contigo,  consigo. 


70  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

(b)  Altri  is  frequently  added  to  noi,  voi,  in  speak- 
ing of  a  whole  class  of  persons1 : 

Venite  meco  voialtri.     Come  with  me,  all  of  you. 

Noi  altri  (or  noialtri)  Romani  siamo  altieri.  We  Ro- 
mans are  proud. 

93.  The  reflexive  se  is  objective  only.  The  subject 
forms  "I  myself",  "we  ourselves",  etc.,  are  rendered 
by  adding  the  adjectives  stesso  or  medesimo  to  the 
pronoun : 

Andr§  io  medesimo.     I  shall  go  myself. 

Loro  stessi  sono  qui.     They  themselves  are  here. 

Ma  signore,  Loro  medesime  l'hanno  detto!  But, ladies! 
you  said  so  yourselves. 

But: 

L' ha  fatto  da  se.     He  (she)  did  it  by  himself  (herself). 

Sono  partiti  da  se.  They  have  gone  away  by  themselves 
(or:  of  their  own  free  will). 

94.  "It",  the  subject  of  an  impersonal  verb,  never 
being  in  the  slightest  degree  emphatic,  is  not  expressed 
in  Italian2: 

Pigve,  non  §  vero?  3     It  is  raining,  isn't  it? 

95.  Although    these    pronouns    have    distinct    case 


1  Cf .  Spanish  nosotros,  vosotros,  now  meaning  simply  "we", 
"you".  The  "we'uns",  "you'uns"  of  the  Tennessee  moun- 
taineer might  also  be  adduced. 

2  But  a  somewhat  less  impersonal  "it"  may  be  rendered  by  gli 
(86,  foot-note  3):  Gli  e  teco  cortesia  lesser  villano  (Orlando  Furioso, 
27,  77).  "It  is  courtesy  to  be  rude  with  thee"  (literally,  "it,  the 
being  rude  with  thee, is  courtesy").  Ella  (la)  is  also  used  in  a  sort 
of  neuter  sense:  In  verita,  ella  §  cosi.  'In  truth  it  is  so".  La 
ser§bbe  b§lla.      "That  would  be  nice "  (sarcastically) . 

3  This  expression,  non  §  vero,  literally  "is  it  not  true",  is  con- 
stantly used  in  Italian.  It  is  a  mere  call  for  assent  on  the  part  of 
the  hearer,  which  call  is  rendered  in  English  by  repeating  the  verb. 


DISJUNCTIVK   PERSONAL  PRONOUNS.  71 

forms  for  the  subjective  and  objective,  the  objective 

is  often  used  as  subject.     It  is  so  used  : 

(a)  With  the  verb  e>sere  in  phrases  where  there 
might  be  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  construction,  as 
in  the  case  of  predicate  pronouns  and  where  the  sub- 
ject is  really  understood  with  the  verbal  form  and 
then  repeated  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  (redundant  con- 
struction) .  Observe  also  the  almost  constant  use  of 
Lei,  "you",  as  a  nominative  (91  (a)) : 

Costui  che  §  un  altro  me.     That  one  who  is  my  other 

self. 

Esso  credeva  ch'  io  fossi  te.     He  thought  I  was  you. 

Ma  te,  tu  s§i  piu  giovane  di  me.  But  you  are  younger 
than  I. 

Tanto  i  suo,i  frat§lli  che  lui  sono  molto  cortesi.  Both  he 
and  his  brothers  are  very  polite. 

Sta  b§ne  L§i  ?     Are  you  well  ? 

But  where  there  is  no  uncertainty  as  to  the  con- 
struction, i.e.,  where  there  is  a  verb  expressed  with 
only  one  pronoun  near  it,  the  construction  is  like  the 
English  one: 

Sono  io.1     It  is  I.     Sono  essi.     It  is  they. 

(b)  Absolutely,  i.e.,  where  there  is  no  verb  expressed, 
with  the  pronouns  of  the  third  person  only : 

Sfortunata  Le,i!     You  unfortunate  one! 
Studiosi  come  lui  non  conosco  altri.     I  know  no  one  else 
as  studious  as  he  (is). 

(Exercises  XVI  and  XVII.) 

1  Contrast  French  c'est  moi.  The  objective  for  subjective  is 
oftener  used  in  conversation  than  in  writing.  The  substitution  is 
oftenest  made  in  the  forms  for  the  third  person.      Cf.  below,  (b). 


12  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

CONJUNCTIVE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS.     REFLEXIVE 

VERBS. 

96.  Pronominal  particles  or  conjunctive  personal 
pronouns,  as  their  name  indicates,  cannot  be  separated 
from  the  verb  of  which  they  are  the  object,  either 
direct  or  indirect,  without  a  preposition. 

The  forms  found  correspond  to  the  unstressed  ac- 
cusative and  dative  cases.     They  are : 

mi  =  disjunctive  me,  a  me,  me,  myself,  to  me,  to  my- 

self 

te  =  te,  a  te,  thee,  thyself,  to  thee,  to  thy- 

self ' 

lo1  =         "  lui,  esso,  him,  it 

gli  5=3         "  a  lui,  to  him 

la  =         "  l§i,  essa,  her  (you) 

le  <=         "  a  le,i,  to  her  (to  you) 

si  «=         "  se,  a  se,  himself,  herself,  themselves, 

to  himself,  to  herself,  to  themselves 

ci2  =         "  noi,  a  noi,  us,  ourselves,  to  us,  to  our- 

selves 

vi  =         "  voi,  a  voi,  you,  yourself,  yourselves, 

to  you,  to  yourself,  to  yourselves 

gliorli3=  "  loro,  them,  to  them  (masculine) 

le  =  "  loro,  them,  to  them  (feminine) 

loro4        =  "  a  loro,  to  them 

1 II  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of  this  lo,  especially  in  older 
Italian  and  in  poetry.  Both  forms  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  the  article  il,  lo. 

2  Ne  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  this  ci,  especially  in  older 
Italian. 

3  Gli  is  the  indirect  object,  li  the  direct,  but  gli  is  often  used 
instead  of  li  before  a  vowel,  a  liquid  consonant,  h,  or  s  impure. 

*  The  right  of  this  form  to  be  called  conjunctive  may  be  dis- 


CONJUNCTI YK    PKRSONAT.    I'ROXOIXS.  73 

97.  To  these  must  be  added  the  pronominal  ad- 
verbs: ne,1  of  it,  of  him,  of  her,  of  them,  some,  any, 
hence,  thence;  ci,2vi,2'3  to  it,  here,  there. 

Mi  vede.  He  sees  me.  Mi  lavo.  I  am  washing  my- 
self. Mi  da  un  fiore.  He  gives  me  (  =  to  me)  a  flower. 
Ti  dicono.  They  tell  thee.  Lo  vedo.  I  see  him.  Gli  do. 
il  calamaio.  I  give  him  (  =  to  him)  the  ink-stand.  Le 
parlavi  ?  Did  you  speak  to  her?  Si  vede.  He  sees  him- 
self, he  is  seen,  people  see  him.4  Si  parlano.  They  are 
talking  to  one  another.  Ci  cercano.  They  are  looking 
for  us.  Vi  vedeva  di  rado.  I  seldom  saw  you.  Ne  ho 
(orn'hq).  I  have  some  of  it.  Vi§  (orv'  §,  cJ  e').  Thereis 
(some). 

N.B.  To  be  emphasized  these  pronouns  must  all 
be  replaced  by  the  corresponding  disjunctive  forms, 
as:  vede  me  non  te,  "he  sees  me,  not  you";  partir9 
con  lui. 

Remarks  on  the  Conjunctive  Pronouns. 

98.  (1)  Lo  5  and  ne,  and  less  often  other  conjunc- 
tives, are  sometimes  used  where  in  English  they  would 
be  pleonastic: 

puted.  It  must  always  follow  the  verb  (cf.  99V  It  is  loro  dis- 
junctive, but  used  without  a  preposition:  Gli  dico,  or  (more  em- 
phatic) dico  loro,  or  (still  more  emphatic)  dico  a  lpro,  "I  tell 
them". 

1  =  French  en  (<inde). 

?  In  function  as  in  meaning  both  forms  =  French  y. 

3  All  the  monosyllabic  forms  are  subject  to  elision,  lo,  gli,  la,  le 
(these  last  also  when  =" you",  "to  you")  under  the  same  circum- 
stances as  when  articles;  mi,  ti,  si,  vi,  ne  before  any  vowel,  ci  only 
before  e  and  i.     Cf.  36. 

4  Cf.  104  and  105. 

5  This  lp  is  one  of  the  very  few  neuter  forms  left  to  the  Italian. 
It  may  represent  a  whole  clause:    Sperava   che  verr^bbe  ma  non  lp 


74  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

§  stanco?  Are  you  tired?  Lo  sono,  I  am.  Ne  abbiamo 
dei  libri.1    We  have  some  books.     La   t&Vola   Pho  vista. 

I  have  seen  the  table. 

(2)  The  pronominal  particles  are  often  used  with 
the  articles  in  place  of  possessives  (cf.  137  (2)) : 

Mi  duQle  la  t§sta.     My  head  aches. 

Le  gettai  le  braccia  al  cgllo.  I  threw  my  arms  around 
her  neck. 

Si  ruppe  una  gamba.     He  has  broken  his  leg. 

Mi  §  mcjrto  un  amico.  A  friend  of  mine  has  died,  I 
have  lost  a  friend. 

(3)  Two  particles,  one  of  which  is  really  a  dative, 
are  often  used  together  where  in  English  a  preposition 
would  be  necessary : 

Glielo2  cercherg.     I  will  look  for  it  for  you. 

(4)  Ci,  vi,  and  ne  as  pronouns  are  to  be  distinguished 
from  ci,  vi,  ne  as  adverbs3  by  the  context: 

Ci  vede.     He  sees  us.     Ci  va.     He  is  going  there. 
N'  ha.     He  has  some.     Ne  vi§ne.      He  is  coming  from 
there. 

(5)  A  verb  maybe  accompanied  by  two  conjunctive 

pronouns  only  when  one  is  a  direct,  the  other  an  in- 

sapeva,  "I  hoped  you  would  come,  but  did  not  know  it"  (i.e., that 
you  would  come).  La,  le,  and  una  are  also  neuter  in  idiomatic 
phrases  where  they  represent  an  indefinite  object  not  expressed: 
Darla  a  gamba,  "to  run  away";  Ha  fatto  una  delle  sue,  "he  has 
committed  one  of  his  ordinary  blunders",  "that  is  like  him"; 
Non  ce  ne  perdonava  una,  "he  treated  us  all  alike".  The  appar- 
ently feminine  form  is  explained  by  comparison  with  the  Latin 
neuter  plural. 

1  The  repetition  here  gives  emphasis.  The  Italian  phrase  may 
mean  much  more  than  the  English — "we  have  indeed  some  books, 
yes  indeed,  we  have  some".  In  the  second  example  lp  is  really  an 
adverb. 

2Cf.  101. 

3  Etymologically  the  words  arc  identical. 


CONJUNCTIVE   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS.  75 

direct  object.     Where  there  are  two  direct  or  two  in- 
direct objects  the  disjunctive  forms  must  be  used: 

Lo  cercava.     I  was  looking  for  him. 

Cercava  lui  e  l§i.     I  was  looking  for  him  and  for  her.1 

Gli  regalai  una  penna.     I  made  him  a  present  of  a  pen. 

Regalai  dei  libri  a  lui  e  a  l§i. 

Sentence  Structure  with  Conjunctive  Pronouns. 

99.  Conjunctive  pronouns  immediately  accompany 
the  verb  on  which  they  depend.  With  the  exception 
of  loro  they  immediately  precede  it  unless  that  verb 
be  a  positive  imperative,  an  infinitive,  a  present  parti- 
ciple, or  a  past  participle  used  without  an  auxiliary,3 
in  all  of  which  four  cases  they  follow  and  are  joined  to 
the  verbal  form,  i.e.,  the  two  are  written  as  one  word. 
The  word  §cco,  "behold!",  'there  is",  etc.,  is  treated 
also  as  an  affirmative  imperative,  the  particle  being 
compounded  with  it  in  the  regular  wray.  Loro  always 
follows  the  verb,  but  is  never  joined  to  it. 

In  the  compounds: 

(a)  The  infinitive  loses  its  final  vowel,  or  if  it  ends 
in  -rre  it  may  lose  its  final  syllable : 

Voleva  mostrarlo.     He  wanted  to  show  it. 

Vedo  dei  fiori  e  V9glio  c§rli  (for  co,rre,  contracted  form  of 
c^gliere).     I  see  some  flowers  and  I  want  to  pick  them. 

1  "  Him "  and  " her "  are  somewhat  emphasized,  otherwise  we 
should  use  "them",  representing  both. 

2  With  the  negative  imperative  the  order  is  not  reversed:  Npn 
lo  dire,  "do  not  (thou)  tell  it".  Cf.  model  regular  verbs,  p.  51 
and  note  4. 

3  The  same  construction  is  sometimes  extended  to  other  verbal 
forms  accented  on  the  last  syllable:  Parlogli,  "he  spoke  to  him": 
temerollo,  "I  shall  fear  it";  diranne,  "they  will  tell  it"  (diranno 
having  lost  its  last  syllable  and  remaining  an  oxytone). 


76  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

(b)  The  conjunctive  pronouns  except  gli  (and  glie  = 
gli  or  le,  for  which  see  101)  double  their  initial  con- 
sonant when  the  verbal  form  to  which  they  are  added 
is  a  monosyllable  or  a  polysyllable  ending  in  an 
accented  vowel,1  as  cominciQllo,  "he  began  it"  ;  dhxmi 
(di'  from  dire,  "to  say",  "to  tell"),  "tell  (thou)  me"2: 

Mgstragli  il  giornale.  Show  (to)  him  the  newspaper. 
Ijxcolo.     Here  it  is. 

E  mostratolo  vi§ni  qua  a  parlarmi.  And  when  you  have 
shown  it  (literally,  "and  it  having  been  shown")  come 
here  to  talk  to  me. 

Mostrandolo  se,i  stato  obbedi§nte.  In  showing  it  you 
were  obedient. 

Dammi  la  mano,  vcjglio  condurti 3  a  spasso.  Give  me 
your  hand,  I  will  take  you  to  walk. 

Parliamo  loro.     Let  us  talk  to  them. 

Remark.  A  conjunctive  pronoun  depending  upon  a 
dependent  transitive  infinitive  may  either  be  united  to 
the  infinitive  or  may  precede  the  principal  verb: 

Desidero  sentirlo  or  lo  desidero  sentire.  I  desire  to  hear 
him.  (Since  an  intransitive  verb  cannot  take  a  direct  ob- 
ject, it  follows  that  where  the  dependent  infinitive  is  in- 
transitive the  object  always  belongs  to  the  principal  verb. 
Therefore  phrases  like  "I  see  him  coming"  must  be  trans- 
lated lo  vedo  venire,  or  lo  vedo  venendo,  or  lo  vedo  che 
vie,ne,  but  never  vedo  venirlo.)  But  there  is  not  always 
this  freedom  of  choice;  the  following  cases  must  be  distin- 
guished : 

(a)  When  the  principal  verb  is  impersonal  the  pronoun 
must  always  go  with  the  infinitive: 

1  This  doubling  in  composition  is  not  confined  to  this  compound. 
Da  +  ci  =  dacci,  etc. 

2  In  these  as  in  all  the  above  compounds  the  verbal  form  is  ac- 
cented as  usual,  the  pronoun  unaccented. 

3=condurre  tje. 


CONJUNCTIVE   PERSONAL  PRONOUNS.  77 

Bisogna  sentirlo.  One  must  hear  him  (not  lo  bisogna 
sentire). 

(b)  Where  in  Italian  a  preposition  must  stand  between 
the  principal  verb  and  its  dependent  infinitive,  the  pro- 
noun must  go  with  the  infinitive: 

Andr§  a  farlo.     I  shall  go  to  do  it  (not  lo  andr§  a  fare). 

(c)  Where  the  principal  verb  has  already  a  pronominal 
object  of  its  own  it  takes  also  that  of  the  dependent  infini- 
tive, which  it  governs  directly1: 

Me  1'  ha  visto  fare.     He  has  seen  me  do  it. 

(d)  In  case  the  principal  verb  is  fare  and  the  dependent 
infinitive  has  a  pronominal  direct  object,  the  object  of  fare 
is  made  indirect  and  placed  before  it,  and  the  infinitive 
keeps  its  object  attached  to  it: 

Gli  fa  l^ggerlo.     He  makes  him  read  it.2 

(e)  Lasciare,  sentire,  udire,  and  vedere  may  also  take 
this  construction,  and  lasciare  usually  does: 

Gli  lascer9  vederlo.     I  shall  let  him  see  him. 

ioo.  Where  two  conjunctive  pronouns  accompany 
one  verb3  the  indirect  object  precedes  the  direct: 

Mi  vi  mostrava.  He  was  showing  you  to  me.  Mostra- 
tomivi.      Having  pointed  you  out  to  me. 

Exception  :  Infringements  of  this  rule  are  not  un- 
common.    Loro  regularly  comes  last: 

Vi  mostrava  loro.     He  showed  you  to  them. 

Mostratovi  loro.     Having  pointed  you  out  to  them. 

Me  gli  accostai.     I  drew  near  him. 

io i.  Mi,  ti,  si,  ci,  vi,  when  they  are  followed  by  lo, 
la,  li,  le,  ne,  change  their  i  to  e.     Gli  and  le,    'to  him' 

1  I.e.,  without  a  preposition  between  it  and  the  infinitive.  Cf. 
ib)  above. 

2  This  is  an  extension  of  the  principle  that  a  transitu v  verb  can 
have  only  one  direct  object,  lfggere  being  in  the  exam]  le  the  direct 
object  of  fa.     This  construction  is  found  also  in  French. 

3Cf.  98  (5). 


78 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


and  "to  her"  ("to  you"),  before  the  same  forms  be- 
come glie,  and  are  written  as  one  word  with  the  other 
particle : 

Te  lo  mgstro;  c§  lo  mostrava;  ve  ne  parlo;   gliene  par- 
ler^1;    egli  me  li  aveva  mostrati. 

Exercises  XVIII  and  XIX. 

Reflexive  Verbs. 
102.  Any  transitive  verb  may  be  made  reflexive  by 
giving  it  throughout  the  appropriate  conjunctive  pro- 
nouns, i.e.,  those  of  the  same  person  as  the  subject. 
Following  is  a  synopsis  of  a  reflexive  verb : 

Infinitive.  vestirsi,  to  dress  one's  self 

Present  participle.      vest§ndosi 
Past  participle.  vestitosi 


INDICATIVE. 

Present. 

(io)  mi  v§sto,  I  dress  myself 

(tu)  ti  v§sti,  thou  dresses.t  thyself 

(egli)  si  v§ste,  he  dresses  himself 

(noi)  ci   vestiamo,    we    dress   our- 

selves 

(voi)  vi  vestite,  you  dress  yourselves 

(§ssi)  si  v§stono,  they  dress  them- 

selves 

Imperfect. 

mi  vestiva,  etc. 

Preterit. 

mi  vestii,  etc. 

Future. 

mi  vestir§,  etc. 

Conditional. 

mi  vestir§i,  etc. 

IMPERATIVE. 

v^stiti 

vestitevi 

1  The  context  will  in  such  cases  show  whether  the  meaning  is 
"  I  shall  speak  to  him  about  it"  or  "  I  shall  speak  to  her  about  it". 


REFLEXIVE   VERBS. 


79 


Present. 
Imperfect. 


Past  indefinite. 
Pluperfect. 
Past  anterior. 
Future  anterior. 
Conditional. 


Past  indefinite. 
Pluperfect. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

mi  ve,sta,  etc. 
mi  vestissi,  etc. 

Compound  Tenses.1 

INDICATIVE. 

mi  sono  vestito,  etc. 
mi2  §ra  vestito,  etc. 
mi  fui  vestito,  etc. 
mi  sar§  vestito,  etc. 
mi  sar§i  vestito,  etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

mi  sia  vestito,  etc. 
mi  fossi  vestito,  etc. 


Remarks  on  Reflexive  Verbs. 

103.  As  has  been  already  observed  (77),  all  re- 
flexive verbs  form  their  compound  tenses  from  §'ssere  + 
the  past  participle.  The  past  participle  agrees  often- 
est  with  the  direct  object  (which  is  of  course  of  the 
same  number  and  gender  as  the  subject)3: 

La  signora  mi  disse  che  s*  §ra  alzata  alle  se,tte.  The 
lady  told  me  that  she  had  gotten  up  at  seven  o'clock. 

Ess§ndosene  vergognata  molto  la  pgvera  piccina.  The 
poor  little  girl  having  been  much  ashamed  of  it. 

Remark.  There  is  no  distinction  of  form  between 
reflexive  and  reciprocal  verbs,  but  V  un  V  altro,  '  one 
another",  may  be  added  in  order  to  avoid  ambiguity: 

Le  dcmne  s'  amano  le  une  le  altre.  The  women  love  one 
another. 


1  Cf.  78  and  103. 


Or  m'  $ra  vestito.  s  Cf.  also  114. 


80  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

104.  The  third  person  of  the  reflexive  is  often  used 
with  (a)  a  passive  sense;  (b)  an  impersonal  (neutral) 
sense. 

(a)  In  the  first  ease  the  verb  is  naturally  always  a 
transitive  one  (since  only  a  transitive  may  become 
passive),  and  the  verb  agrees  with  its  subject,  si  being 
its  direct  object: 

Questi  libri  si  cdmprano  dappertutto.  These  books  are 
sold  everywhere  (literally,  "  sell  themselves"). 

II  libro  che  mi  si  di§de.  The  book  which  was  given  to 
me. 

(b)  In  the  second  case  the  verb  may  be  and  often  is 
intransitive.  It  has  no  subject  expressed,  and  the  si 
which  accompanies  it,  although  it  is  not  its  subject, 
may  conveniently  be  translated  'one",  'they", 
"people",  "we": 

Si  dice.     It  is  said,  they  say. 

Se  ne  parla.     People  are  talking  about  it. 

Si  ballera.     There  will  be  dancing. 

Se  ne  va.     People  are  leaving. 

Io  sperava  che  e-ggi  si  sare,bbe  stati  allegri  insie,me. 
I  hoped  that  we  would  have  been  happy  together 
to-day. 

105.  The  fact  that  there  are  these  two  constructions 
with  the  reflexive  and  that  they  are  not  clearly  under- 
stood by  all  has  given  rise  to  a  certain  amount  of  con- 
fusion. Where  the  subject  follows  and  the  si  precedes 
the  verb  the  latter  is  often  made  singular  as  though  si 

were  its  subject: 

Queste  C9se  non  si  pcjssono  fare.  These  things  cannot 
be  done. 

Or: 

Non  si  pu§  fare  queste  ce-se. 


REFLEXIVE  VERBS.  81 

(a)  Or  a  verb  in  the  singular  may  be  followed  by  a 
plural  noun  or  adjective: 

Quando  si  §  costretti.     When  one  is  constrained. 

Si  die.de  nuQve  P9C0  consolanti.1     Tliere  was  bad  news. 

(b)  Si  may  serve  with  a  passive  to  mark  a  change  of 
tense : 

5  creduto.  It  is  believed.  Si  §  creduto  (=§  stato  credu- 
to).     It  has  been  believed.2 

106.  Many  verbs  are  reflexive  in  Italian  which  are 
not  so  in  English,  and  there  are  many  essentially  re- 
flexive verbs,  i.e.,  verbs  which  are  never  used  except 
as  reflexives,  as  pentirsi,  'to  repent",  accgrgersi,  'to 
perceive",  etc.  Many  reflexive  verbs  require  a  prepo- 
sition to  complete  their  meaning,  as : 

abituarsi  a,  to  get  accustomed  to. 
rallegrarsi  di,  to  rejoice  over,  etc.3 

107.  The  verb  andarsene,  "to  go  away",  deserves 
special  mention,  as  it  takes  two  conjunctive  pronouns 
throughout : 

me  ne  vado,  I  am  going  away. 

se  ne  andava,  he  was  going  away. 

se  ne  andranno,  they  will  go  away. 

vatene,  go  (thou)  away;  andatevene,  go  (ye,  you)  away. 

non  se  ne  vadano,  let  them  not  go  away. 

ess§ndosene  andati,  they  having  gone  away,  etc. 

(Exercises  XX  and  XXI.) 

1  Literally,  "news  little  consoling". 

2  For  this  curious  usage  cf.  Moise,  Regole  ed  Osservazioni  delta 
Lingua  Italiana,  §332,  p.  298. 

3  Cf.  lists  under  211  (3)  and  212  (2). 


82  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ADJECTIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES. 

1 08.  Adjectives  and  participles  used  as  adjectives 
agree  with  their  nouns  in  number  and  gender.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  this  agreement  is  indicated  by  the 
termination.1 

(a)  An  adjective  or  participle  qualifying  two  or 
more  nouns  of  different  number  and  gender  is  usually 
made  masculine  plural,  but  it  may  agree  only  with 
the  noun  nearest  to  it : 

Signore,  signori,  do,nne  del  pgpolo,  operai,  ufficiali,  no,nne, 
s§rve,  tutti  coi  ragazzi  per  una  mano  e  i  libretti  di  promo- 
zione  nell*  altra,  empivan  la  stanza  d'  entrata  e  le  scale. 
Ladies,  gentlemen,  women  of  the  lower  classes,  workmen, 
officials,  grandmothers,  servants,  all  holding  boys  by  one 
hand  and  the  certificates  of  promotion  in  the  other,  filled 
the  entrance  and  the  stairways. 

II  padre,  i  frat§lli  e  le  sore, lie  sono  partite.  The  father, 
brothers,  and  sisters  have  gone. 

(b)  A  plural,  noun  may  take  two  or  more  adjectives 
in  the  singular  in  cases  where  in  point  of  fact  each 
adjective  should  be  accompanied  by  a  noun  in  the 
singular : 

Le  lingue  francese  e  ted§sca  sono  lingue  mode,rne.  The 
French  and  German  languages  are  modern  languages. 

109.  All  adjectives  (with  the  exception  of  those  few 
mentioned  under  118)  end  in  the  masculine  singular 
in  either  o  or  e.  Those  in  o  have  a  corresponding  form 
in  a,  and  both  masculine  and  feminine  form  their  plural 

1  Cf.  42. 


ADJECTIVES  AND   PARTICIPLES.  83 

in  the   same  way  as   nouns  (cf.  55  and    56).      They 
thus  have  in  all  four  forms. 

Adjectives  in  e  have  no  distinctive  form  for  the  femi- 
nine either  in  the  singular  or  the  plural,  i.e.,  they 
distinguish  by  their  termination  the  plural  from  the 
singular,  but  not  the  feminine  from  the  masculine  (cf. 

55): 

L'  u9mo  g  bugno.     Anche  la  dgnna  g  bugna.1 

Gli  ugmini  sono  bugni.     Anche  le  dgnne  sono  buQne. 

L*  ugmo  g  prudgnte.     La  dgnna  g  prudgnte. 

Gli  ugmini  sono  prudgnti.  Anche  le  dgnne  sono  pru- 
dgnti. 

Remarks,  (i)  Most  adjectives  may  be  used  sub- 
stantively : 

I  bugni  non  sono  sgmpre  felici.  The  good  are  not  al- 
ways happy. 

(2)  A  certain  number  of  adjectives  partake  also  of 
the  nature  of  pronouns: 

Ha  visto  le  mie  fotografie  ?  Have  you  seen  my  photo- 
graphs ? 

Alcune  si,  non  tutte.     Some,  not  all. 

Molti  ugmini.     Molti  lo  dicono. 

no.  A  participle  used  as  an  adjective  takes  the  dif- 
ferent forms  of  an  adjective: 

Sono  bambini  bgn  amati.  They  are  much-beloved  chil- 
dren. 

Che  valli  ridgnti!     What  smiling  valleys! 

IJcco  una  ragazza  trascurata.  There  is  a  neglected  little 
girl. 

1  The  pupil  should  be  able  to  understand  such  examples  as  these 
without  translation,  therefore  none  is  given. 


84  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Remarks  on  the  Participles. 

in.  The  present  participle  in  -ante,  -ente,  where 
it  has  not  become  a  noun  is  always  an  adjective  and 
so  takes  the  forms  of  an  adjective: 

|)  una  ragazza  amante.     She  is  an  affectionate  girl. 

Le  ragazze  sono  amanti. 

I  derid§nti  ogni  cred§nza  lo  dicono.  Those  who  scoff 
at  all  belief  say  so. 

(a)  There  is  a  large  class  of  words  made  up  of  these  par- 
ticiples substantivized;  as,  amante,  cantante,  comandante, 
rappresentante,  etc.  Deride, nti  in  the  last  example  above 
is  almost  a  substantive. 

112.  The  present  participle  in  -ando,  -endo  is  never 
used  as  an  adjective,  but  always  with  verbal  force, 
and  is  therefore  invariable: 

Ess§ndo  ammalati  non  p^ssono  andare  a  trovarlo.  Being 
ill  (  =  since  they  are  ill)  they  cannot  go  to  see  him. 

Dic§ndo  cosi  essa  mi  lasci^.     Thus  saying  she  left  me. 

113.  The  past  participle  may  be  either  an  adjective 
or  a  verb: 

(a)  Used  with  §ssere  (venire,  rimanere — cf.  81)  it 
is  a  predicate  adjective  and  as  such  agrees  with  its 
noun,  i.e.,  with  the  subject  of  e'ssere: 

II  libro  vi§ne  mostratq.     The  book  is  (being)  shown. 
I  libri  sono  stati  mostrati. 

(b)  Used  with  avere  the  past   participle  is  a  verb.1 

1  The  difference  of  function  of  the  participle  when  used  with 
these  two  verbs  may  be  made  clear  by  turning  the  phrase  under 
consideration  into  a  question.  Thus,  taking  the  examples  given 
at  the  end  of  the  paragraph :  I  have  shown  the  books.  What  have 
I  done  ?  I  have  shown  (which  is  an  action) .  Here  arc  the  books 
which  I  have  shown.  What  books  are  these?  They  are  the  books 
which    I    have    shown.      (No    action    here,    "shown"    qualifying 


ADJECTIVES  AND   PARTICIPLES.  85 

As  such  it  may  remain  invariable  (i.e.,  in  the  mascu- 
line singular). 

But  it  is  evident  that  the  action  is  done  toihc  direct 
object  of  avere,  so  the  past  participle  may  agree  with 
that  direct  object. 

It  usually  agrees  with  a  personal  pronoun  preceding 
the  verb,  and  often  with  an  object  other  than  a  per- 
sonal pronoun  when  it  precedes  the  verb : 

H9  mostrato  i  libri.1 

]j)cco  i  libri  che  ho  mostrato  (or  mostrati). 

Ifcco  i  libri,  li  ho  mostrati.2 

114.  The  case  of  reflexive  and  reciprocal  verbs  is 
somewhat  different  from  either  of  those  mentioned 
above.3  The  verb  is  here  §'ssere,  which  has,  however, 
an  active  sense.  The  past  participle  is  therefore  a 
verb,  not  a  predicate  adjective,  and  as  such  it  may 
agree  with  a  direct  object  preceding  it.  As  noted 
above,  it  usually  does  agree  when  this  object  is  a 
personal  pronoun: 

Ci  siamo  amati.  We  have  loved  one  another  (or  our- 
selves). 

Le  dgnne  si  sono  amate.  The  women  have  loved  one 
another  (or  themselves). 

But  the  reflexive  pronoun  is  frequently  not  the 
direct  object: 

"books",  just  as  any  other  adjective  might.)  Taking  the  two 
questions:  "  He  is — what?"  "Hehasdone — what  ?"  it  is  clear  that 
the  answer  to  the  first  is  a  noun  or  adjective,  that  to  the  second  a 
verb. 

1  H9  mostrati  i  libri  is  very  unusual. 

2  Li  ho  mostrato  would  be  very  unusual.  It  is.  however,  evi- 
dent that  the  tendency  is  in  Italian  to  make  the  past  participle 
with  avere  invariable. 

3  Cf.  103. 


86  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Ci  siamo  parlati.     We  have  spoken  to  one  another. 

In  this  case,  where  there  is  no  direct  object  ex- 
pressed, the  participle  usually  agrees  with  the  subject 
(or  the  indirect  object,  it  would  be  difficult  to  say 
which,  since  with  these  verbs  the  same  person  per- 
forms and  receives  the  action).  But  where  there  is  a 
direct  object  expressed  the  participle  may  agree  either 
with  that  or  with  the  subject,  or  may  remain  invari- 
able: 

Ci  siamo  detti  (detta,  detto)  la  verita.  We  have  told 
one  another  the  truth.1 

(a)  The  qualifiers  of  two  or  more  nouns  either  singular 
or  plural,  not  of  the  same  gender,  are  made  masculine 
plural : 

L*  ugmo  e  le  dgnne  sono  venuti.  The  man  and  the 
women  have  come. 

II  frat§llo  e  la  sorglla  sono  be, Hi  tutt'  e  due.  Both  the 
brother  and  the  sister  are  handsome. 

Forms  of  Adjectives. 

115.  Bgllo,  grande,  and  santo  drop  their  final  sylla- 
ble, bugno  its  final  vowel  before  a  singular  masculine 
noun  beginning  with  a  consonant : 

Un  b§l  libro.     Un  gran  ragazzo.     Un  bugn  cane. 

San  Carlo.     Saint  Charles. 

(a)  Before  a  singular  masculine  beginning  with  a 
vowel  bgllo  becomes  bgll' ;  grande,  grand';  santo, 
sant' ;   bugno,  bugn2: 

literally,  "We  have  said  to  one  another  the  truth".  It  is 
probable  that  we  have  here  a  case  of  mental  confusion,  the  speaker 
not  knowing  what  the  participle  qualifies.  But  the  latitude  of 
the  Italians  in  this  matter  lightens  it  for  the  foreigner. 

2  Note  that  there  is  no  apostrophe.  Cf.  41,  note  2.  Compare 
throughout  the  forms  of  the  definite  article. 


ADJECTIVES  AND   PARTICIPLES.  87 

Un  bglP  U91110,  un  grand'  1191110,  un  sant'  uomo,  un  bu9n 
amico. 

(b)  Before  impure  s  or  when  predicated  the  regular 
forms  are  used: 

Un  b§llo  sps'cchio.     L'  u9mo  9  grande. 

(c)  The  plural  forms  are: 

(1)  For  D9I,  gran,  san,  bu9n :  b§i,  grandi,  santi,  bu9ni. 

(2)  For  b9ll',  grand',  sant',  btu^n:  b§gli,  santi,  grandi, 
bu9ni. 

(3)  For  b9llo,  grande,  santo,  bu9no :  b^lli,  santi,  grandi, 
bu9ni. 

Remarks,  (i)  These  latter  are  the  regular  forms. 
It  will  be  observed  that  b§llo  is  much  more  irregular 
than  the  others,  being  the  only  one  irregular  also  in 
the  plural. 

(2)  Gran  for  grande  also  occurs  in  the  feminine  singular, 
especially  as  qualifier  of  a  noun  ending  in  e1,  and  some- 
times takes  the  place  of  grandi  in  the  masculine  plural: 

Una  gran  nazione.     La  gran  Brettagna. 

La  gran  via.    The  highroad.    I  gran  casi.     Great  events. 

Tutti  oltre  alia  grande  patria,  alia  gran  madre  che  ci 
racc9glie  sotto  le  sue  ali,  abbiamo  una  piccola  patria :  la 
citta  od  il  villaggio  che  ci  ha  visti  nascere.  We  all  have 
besides  the  great  native  land,  the  great  mother  who  gathers 
us  under  her  wings,  a  little  country — the  city  or  village 
which  witnessed  our  birth. 

116.  Adjectives  in  -co  and  -go  form  their  plurals 
according  to  rules  closely  resembling  those  given  for 
nouns  having  these  terminations  (cf.  62). 

(1)  Adjectives  in  -go  may  always,  and  do  usually, 
form  their  plural  in  -ghi : 

1  Also  in  the  expressions  una  gran  b^lla  C9sa,  una  gran  bruttB 
cosa,  "a  very  good  thing",  "bad  thing". 


SS  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

I  casi  analoghi  (or  analogi).     Analogous  cases. 
Uno  stivale  largo.     A  wide  boot.     Stivali  larghi. 

(2)  All  feminines,  as  well  in  -ca  as  in  -ga,  likewise 
preserve  the  quality  of  the  guttural: 

Cucina  casalinga.     Home  cooking,  middle-class  cookery, 
homelike  food.     Abitudini  casalinghe.     Domestic  habits. 
Una  larga  camera      A  wide  room.     Camere  larghe. 

(3)  Adjectives  in  -co  having  the  accent  on  the  penult 
take  in  the  plural  -chi;  those  stressed  on  the  ante- 
penult -ci ! : 

II  v§nto  §  fresco.     The  wind  is  fresh.     V§nti  freschi. 

L'  U91110  §  caduco.  The  man  is  feeble.  5CC0  due  u^mini 
caduchi. 

^  un  gusto  animalesco.     It  is  an  animal  taste,  the  taste 
of  an  animal.     Gusti  animaleschi. 

Sente  un  qualche  sucpo  armonico  ?  Do  you  hear  some 
kind  of  a  harmonious  sound  ?     Si,  s§nto  dei  sugni  armonici. 

5  V  opinione  d'  un  ugmo  laico.  That  is  the  opinion  of  a 
layman. 

Siamo  tutti  laici  qui. 

Un  autore  classico.     Degli  autori  classici. 

Un  po§ma  lirico.     Dei  po§mi  lirici. 

117.  Adjectives  in  -io  also  follow  the  rules  given 
for  nouns  of  the  same  termination: 

II  cavallo  §  restio.     This  horse  is  restive.     Cavalli  restii. 

Un  fiore  fldscio.     A  faded  flower.     Dei  fiori  flosci. 

■  ■      ■  ■  a  ■ 

Un  pezzo  di  legno  marcio.     A  bit  of  rotten  wood. 
Acque  marce.     Putrid  waters. 

II  ragazzo  non  §  sazio.  The  boy  is  not  satisfied.  Le 
ragazze  sono  sazie. 

1  Cf.  61  and  foot-note.     In   accordance  with  this  rule  all  adjec- 
tives in  -esco  take  -eschi,  those  in  '-ico  take  '-ici.      So    eccfntrico 
i,    filantrQpico   -ci,    magnifico  -ci,     peripdico  -ci,     pratico    -ci,    prob- 
lematico  -ci,  but  antico,  antichi.     Pudico  is  an  exception,  forming 
pudichi. 


ADJECTIVES   AND   PARTICIPLES.  89 

118.  Quite  irregular  adjectives  are: 

(a)  Pari,  'equal";  imparl,  'unequal";  ogni, 
"every".  Pari  and  impari  have  only  the  one  form 
for  both  genders  and  numbers.  Ogni  has  naturally 
no  plural;  it  has  also  no  formal  distinction  of  gender. 
These  three  are  the  only  adjectives  in  i. 

(b)  Qualche,  "some",  has  no  plural  form,  and  nouns 
used  with  it  remain  singular  even  though  their  mean- 
ing be  plural  l : 

Comprer9  qualche  fiore.     I  shall  buy  some  flowers. 

(c)  Parecchi,  "some",  'several",  has  no  singular.2 
Its  feminine  is  parecchie. 

(d)  Fu  and  gia,  "formerly"  (the  first  a  part  of  the 
verb  §'ssere,  the  second  an  adverb  of  time),  are  in- 
variable : 

La  Signora  Bianco  fu  (or  gia)  Cesarotti.  Mrs.  B.,  whose 
maiden  name  was  Cesarotti. 

(e)  Dabbe,ne,  dapp9co  are  adverbial  phrases  and 
therefore  invariable : 

Un  ugmo  dabbe,ne.     A  well-meaning  man,  a  good  man. 

(Exercises  XXII  and  XXIII.) 

Comparison  of  Adjectives. 

119.  The  quality  expressed  by  an  adjective  may  be 
affirmed  as  simply  existing  or  as  existing  in  a  certain 
degree.  The  simple  affirmation,  i.e.,  the  simple  form 
of  the  adjective,  implies  no  comparison,  although  it 
has  often  been  called  the  positive  degree  (as  compare 

1  The  implication  with  qualche  is  "a  few",  whereas  dei  fipri 
might  mean  a  great  many. 

2  It  is  in  fact  the  plural  of  parecchio,  "like",  with  change  1  t 
meaning.     There  is  also  an  adverb  parecchio. 


90  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

with  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees) .     There 

are  five  possible  degrees  of  comparison,  expressive  of: 

(i)  Comparative  equality  (in  comparing  two  things). 

(2)  superiority     (in     comparing     two 

things). 

(3)  inferiority      (in     comparing     two 

things) . 

(4)  superlativeness  (in  comparing  more 

than  two  things). 

(5)  Absolute  superlativeness  (in  which  the  quality 
is  affirmed  as  existing  in  a  superlative  degree,  and  yet 
without  comparison). 

This  may  be  made  clear  by  the  following  English  exam- 
ples: 

(1)  This  rose  is  as  beautiful  as  that.  (2)  This  rose  is 
more  beautiful  than  that.  (3)  This  rose  is  less  beautiful 
than  that.  (4)  This  is  the  most  beautiful  rose  of  all. 
(5)  This  is  indeed  a  most  beautiful  rose.1 

120.  All  these  degrees  may  be  and  usually  are  ex- 
pressed in  Italian  analytically,  i.e.,  by  the  use  of 
adverbs,  the  form  of  the  adjective  itself  remaining 
unchanged  (cf.  122,  125). 

Comparison  of  Equality. 

121.  The  comparison  of  equality  is  expressed  by 
cosi — come,  tanto — come,  tanto — che,  tanto — quanto,2 
come  or  quanto  alone: 

|)  cosi  grande  come  suo  frate.Ho.  He  is  as  large  as  his 
brother. 

1  In  "This  rose  is  beautiful"  we  have  the  so-called  "positive 
degree". 

2  Cosi-quanto  is  rather  antiquated,  also  si-quanto  (si  being  simply 
the  abbreviation  of  cosi) .     Altrettanto  =  tanto. 


ADJECTIVES  AND   PARTICIPLES.  91 

|)  tanto  be.Ho  quanto  l'altro.  It  is  as  pretty  as  the  other. 

Questo  libro  §  interessante  quanto  1' a'tro.  This  book 
is  as  interesting  as  the  other. 

Essa  §  pura  come  un  angelo.  She  is  as  pure  as  an  angel. 

Comparison  of  Inequality. 

122.  The  comparison  of  superiority  is  expressed  by 
prefixing  piu,  "more",  to  the  adjective.  Piu  alone 
makes  the  adjective  comparative,  il  (la,  i,  le)  piu  ex- 
presses the  superlative : 

]j)cco  un  b§l  bambino.     That  is  a  beautiful  child. 

IJccone  uno  piu  b§llo.     Here  is  a  prettier  one. 

II  piu  b§llo  non  §  ancora  qui.  The  prettiest  one  is  not 
here  yet. 

(a)  When  the  superlative  follows  the  noun  it  takes  no 
article,  that  preceding  the  noun  being  considered  as  quali- 
fying both.  It  is  often  difficult  in  this  case  to  know 
whether  the  comparative  or  the  superlative  is  intended. 
The  context  must  decide: 

]jxco  V  albero  piu  grande.  This  is  the  larger  (largest) 
tree. 

Gli  ugmini  piu  saggi  lo  dicono.     The  wisest  men  say  so. 

§cco  le  piu  b§lle  donne  or  le  dgnne  piu  belle. 

123.  Although  this  analytical  mode  of  expressing 
comparison  is  the  one  ordinarily  used,  a  certain  num- 
ber of  forms  derived  from  the  Latin  synthetic  system 
still  remain.     The  commonest  are: 

alto,  high,  superiore,  higher,  supremo  or  sommo  or  il 
superiore,  highest; 

basso,  low,  inferiore,  V  inferiore  or  infimo; 
buono,  good,  migliore,1  il  migliore  or  gttimo; 
cattivo,  bad,  peggiore,1  il  peggiore  or  p^'ssimo; 

1  Which  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  corresponding 
adverbs,  meglio,  pfggio.     Cf.  249. 


02  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

grande,  large,  great,  maggiore,  il  maggiore  or  massimo; 
piccolo,  little,  minore,  il  minore  or  minimo. 

(a)  All  these  adjectives  may  also  be  compared  regu- 
larly: alto,  phi  alto,  il  piu  alto,  etc.  (cf.  122).  The 
forms  have  become  differentiated  by  usage,  superiore, 
inferiore,  being  usually  employed  to  signify  "  superior", 
" inferior";  piu  alto,  piu  basso,  to  mean  "higher", 
"lower",  in  the  material  sense.  Migliore  and  peggiore 
do  not  differ  in  meaning  from  piu  buo.no  and  piu  cat- 
tivo,  but  are  oftener  used  than  these  latter  forms. 
Qttimo  and  p^ssimo  have  become  so  dissociated  from 
the  group  that  they  may  be  regarded  as  independent 
adjectives  meaning  "very  good",  "very  bad",  being 
thus  absolute,  not  comparative,  superlatives.1  The 
same  may  be  said  of  massimo  and  minimo,  'very 
large  ",  "  very  small",  sommo,  "very  high,  great",  and 
infimo,  "very  low,  base". 

Maggiore    and   minore    have    usually   the    sense   of 

'older",  "younger";  piu  grande,  piu  piccolo  meaning 

'larger",  "smaller".2 

124.  The  adjectives  in  -§rrimo  and  -issimo  must  also 
be  regarded  as  remnants  of  the  Latin  system.  They 
are  absolutely  superlative  in  meaning.3  Those  in 
-§rrimo  are  rare,  those  in  -issimo  very  common,  any 
adjective  being  made  an  absolute  superlative  by  cut- 
ting off  its  final  vowel  and  adding  this  ending.     The 

1  That  is,  the  quality  described  is  in  full  measure  without  thought 
of  comparing  that  measure  with  any  other. 

2  Estfrno,  esteriore,  estremo;  int§rno,  interiore,  intimo;  ulteripre, 
iiltimo,  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  still  building  groups  of  com- 
parison. 

3  As  is  natural,  adverbs  are  also  frequently  used  to  form  the 
absolute  superlative:  $  molto  b§llo,  assai  b§Uo,  oltremQdo  b$llo;  etc. 


ADJECTIVES   AND  PARTICIPLES.  93 

c  or  g  preceding  this  final  vowel  does  not  change  its 
quality : 

jj  un  poeta  celeb^rrimo.     He  is  a  very  celebrated  poet. 

Scrive  dei  versi  dolcissimi.     He  writes  very  sweet  verses. 

Pochissimi  poeti  scrivono  cosi  b§ne.  Very  few  poets  write 
so  well. 

(a)  Adjectives  ending  in  -dico  and  -fico  (flee)  have  an 
-issimo  superlative  which  might  seem  irregular:  maledico, 
maledicentissimo ,  benefico,  beneficentissimo. 

These  forms  are  really  derived  from  maledice.nte  (pres- 
ent participle),  beneficente. 

Adjectives  in  -evole  have  similar  forms:  malevole , male- 
volentissimo. 

125.  The  comparison  of  inferiority  is  formed  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  superiority,  using  meno, 
"less",  instead  of  phi: 

5  la  meno  bella  delle  sorelle.  She  is  the  least  beautiful 
of  the  sisters. 

Esse  sono  men  fgrti  che  gli  ugrnini.  They  are  less  strong 
than  men. 

Manco1  infelice  di  me.     Less  unhappy  than  I. 

Comparison  by  means  of  di  and  che. 

126.2  "Than"  in  comparisons  whether  of  superiority 
or  of  inferiority  is  rendered  by  di  or  che. 
(a)  Di  is  used  in  comparisons  of: 

(1)  Nouns  accompanied  by  articles  (or  demon- 
strative pronouns). 

(2)  Nouns  or  pronouns  by  means  of  their  adjectives. 

1  Manco  is  oftenest  used  in  the  adverbial  expression  manco  male, 
"not  so  bad",  "not  so  badly". 

2  This  paragraph,  for  the  sake  of  completeness,  goes  beyond  the 
subject  of  adjectives  and  includes  comparison  also  of  other  parts  of 
speech. 


94  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

(3)  Numerals  (i.e.,  between  piu  or  meno  and  a  nu- 
meral) . 

(b)  Che  is  used  in  comparisons  of: 

(1)  Nouns  without  articles. 

(2)  Nouns  or  pronouns  by  means  of  their  verbs. 

(3)  Adjectives. 

(4)  Verbs.     (See  also  127.) 

(5)  Adverbs,  and  in  all  cases  where  "than"  means 
' '  rather  than ' ' * : 

Mi  piace  questo  vino  piu  delP  altro.  I  like  this  wine  more 
than  the  other  (a,  1). 

Mi  piace  piuttosto  questo  vino  che  V  altro.  This  wine 
pleases  me  rather  than  the  other  (b,  2). 

II  vino  §  meno  chiaro  dell'  acqua.  Wine  is  less  clear 
than  water  (a,  2). 

II  vino  §  piu  buono  che  bello2  (b,  2,  or  b,  5). 

Meglio  dormire  che  tormentarsi.  It  is  better  to  sleep 
than  to  worry  (6,  4). 

Non  P9SS0  dormire  piu  di  sette  ore.  I  cannot  sleep  more 
than  seven  hours  (a,  3). 

Tu  s§i  piu  giovane  di  me.     You  are  younger  than  I  (a,  2). 

Lavora  piu  in  fretta  che  b§ne.  He  works  rather  fast 
than  well  (b,  5). 

5  meglio  tardi  che  mai.     Better  late  than  never  (b,  5). 

|)  piu  fortunato  che  felice.  He  is  more  fortunate  than 
happy  (b,  3,  or  b,  5 — "rather  fortunate  than  happy"). 

Egli  ne  recav§  piu  danno  che  utile.  He  got  more  harm 
than  good  out  of  it  (b,  1,  or  b,  5 — "rather  harm  than 
good"). 

1  Che  may  be  used  to  avoid  a  repetition  of  di,  as:  Villari  §  indaga- 
tore  sagace  non  meno  de'  mali  presenti  che  delle  passate  vicende 
d'  Italia.  V.  is  a  wise  investigator  not  less  of  the  present  ills  than 
of  the  past  vicissitudes  of  Italy. 

2  Or:   piuttqsto  buono  che  bello. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES.  95 

Remark.  It  is  evident  that  di  is  used  in  compari- 
sons of  nouns  and  pronouns  wherever  the  comparison 
is  between  them  or  their  qualities  and  not  between  ac- 
tions done  or  suffered  by  them ;  che  in  comparisons  of 
qualities  in  themselves,  i.e.,  considered  apart  from  the 
beings  to  whom  they  are  ascribed,  between  actions  done 
or  suffered,  and  between  whole  concepts. 

But  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  decide  whether  the 
comparison  turns  on  the  noun  or  on  the  verb : 

II  suo  umore  §  piu  mutabile  che  V  onda.  His  humoi  is 
more  changeable  than  the  wave  (is). 

Un  giorno  mi  comparisti  davanti  meno  che  figlio  e  meno 
che  uo,mo.  One  day  you  appeared  before  me  less  than  a 
son  (is)  and  less  than  a  man  (is). 

I  due  anni  rappresentarono  per  noi  piu  che  due  s§coli 
di  esperi§nza.  The  two  years  represented  for  us  more 
than  two  centuries  of  experience  (represented). 

127.  Where  the  comparison  takes  place  between  in- 
flected verbs  "  than  "is  rendered  either  by  che  non  or 
di  quel  che : 

Spe,nde  piu  che  non  guadagna  {or  sp§nde  piu  di  quello  che 
guadagna).     He  spends  more  than  he  earns.1 

128.  Words  which  are  sometimes  adjectives  and 
sometimes  adverbs    are:    molto,    po,co,    quanto,    tanto, 

trgppo2: 

Molti  utjmini  lo  dicono.     Many  men  say  so. 
Ne  sono  molto  infelice.     I  am  very  unhappy  about  it. 
P§che  persone  son  venute.     Few  people  have  come. 
Sono  andati  pQ;ca  distanza.     They  went  a  short  distance. 
|)  un  p9*  piu  sicuro.     It  is  a  little  surer. 

1  This  is  really  a  crossing  of  the  two  constructions:  'He  spends 
more  than  he  earns  "  and  "  He  does  not  earn  as  much  as  he  spends  ". 

2  Cf.  156. 


96  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Ne  sono  tanto  felici.     They  are  so  happy  over  it. 

Vi  sono  tanti  libri.  There  are  so  many  books.  Quanti  ? 
How  many  ? 

Trgppi.     Too  many.     If  trgppo  lontano.     It  is  too  far. 

(a)  Adverbial  phrases  such  as :  "I  returned  them  just  as 
I  received  them"  (  =  "in  the  state  in  which  they  were  when 
I  received  them")  are  to  be  rendered  by  the  adjectives 
tale ,  quale : 

Li  hg  renduti  tali  quali  li  ho  recevuti. 

Place  of  Adjectives. 

129.  Numerals  and  pronominal  adjectives,  most  ad- 
jectives of  size  and  quantity,  adjectives  of  emotion, 
also  (usually)  bgllo  and  bugno  precede  the  noun : 

Hg  tre  libri.  Questi1  libri  sono  grandi.  IJcco  i  migi 
grandi  libri. 

Hg  ancora  molti  libri.  Mgstro  i  migi  bgi  libri  al  mio 
caro  amico. 

130.  Participles  used  as  adjectives,  adjectives  modi- 
fied by  an  adverb  or  a  suffix,  adjectives  of  nationality, 
shape,  color,  and  of  material  qualities  generally,  fol- 
low the  noun : 

5  un  figlio  amato.  §  una  cgsa  bgn  conosciuta.  It  is 
a  well-known  thing.  Sono  libri  italiani.  |)  uno  spgcchio 
rotondo. 

§cco  un  abito  nero.    L'  ugmo  §  cieco.     Un  bgll*  uccgllo. 

But: 

Un  uccgllo  bellino. 

131.  Euphony  often  decides  as  to  the  placing  of  the 
adjective.  In  general  one  of  fewer  syllables  than  its 
noun  precedes,  as  is  the  case  with  bello  and  bugno 
mentioned   above    (129).     Where   two    or   more    ad- 

1  -"these". 


PLACE  OF   ADJECTIVES.  97 

jectives  qualify  one  noun  they  usually  follow,  although 
sometimes  one  precedes  and  the  other  follows: 

jj  un  uo,mo  onesto.     He  is  an  honest  man. 

]J  un  ucjmo  onesto  e  simpatico.  He  is  an  honest  and  con- 
genial man. 

Sente  il  profumo  delle  rQse  primaverile  ?  Do  you  smell 
the  perfume  of  the  Spring  roses? 

Vedete  pure  la  bell'  erba  verde !  Only  see  the  beautiful 
green  grass! 

132.  A  certain  number  of  adjectives  take  a  different 
meaning  when  placed  elsewhere  than  is  usual.  When 
out  of  their  usual  place,  whether  that  be  before  or 
after  the  noun,  they  have  ordinarily  the  literal  mean- 
ing x : 

Un  uomo  grande.  A  large  man.  Un  grand*  U9mo.  A 
great  man. 

Un  ugmo  galante.  A  gallant  man.  Un  galantuQmo. 
An  honorable  man. 

Un  caro  amico.  A  dear  friend.  Una  casa  cara.  A 
costly  house. 

Una  doppia  scrittura.  A  double  copy.  La  scrittura 
doppia.     Double-entry  book-keeping. 

|)  la  sola  miafiglia.  She  is  my  only  daughter.  Mia  figlia 
sola  l'ha  sentito.     Only  my  daughter  has  heard  it. 

{Exercises  XXIV  and  XXV.) 

1  Cf.  130,  also  the  French  usage  of  the  same  adjectives. 


98  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

POSSESSIVES. 

133.  Possessives  are  either  adjectives  or  pronouns 
according  to  their  use  in  the  sentence.  In  ecco  il  mio 
libro,  mio  is  an  adjective  and  is  treated  as  such.  But 
in  §cco  il  mio,  mio  is  a  pronoun  representing  an  ante- 
cedent (this  being  in  the  above  case  libro) .  In  Italian, 
however,  the  form  of  the  possessive  is  the  same, 
whether  its  function  be  adjective  or  pronominal.  In 
other  words,  "my"  and  "mine"  are  rendered  in 
Italian  by  one  and  the  same  word1: 

|)  il  suo  fazzoletto,  newero  ?  This  is  your  handkerchief, 
isn't  it? 

Ma  no,  non  §  il  mio.     No,  it  is  not  mine. 

134.  The  article  being  used  with  most  nouns  (cf. 
44),  it  follows  that  it  in  most  cases  immediately  pre- 
cedes the  possessive  qualifying  the  noun.  The  pro- 
nominal possessive,  representing  a  noun,  is  treated  as 
a  noun,  that  is,  it  also  usually  takes  the  article.  Thus 
the  possessive  is  seldom  found  without  an  article,  and 
that  article  being  generally  the  definite,  the  latter  is 
given  with  the  forms  of  the  possessive,  which  are: 


Singular. 

Plural. 

masc. 

(il)  mio 

(i)  miei 

fern. 

(la)  mia 

(le)  mie 

masc. 

(il)  tuo 

(i)  tuoi 

fern. 

(la)  tua 

(le)  tue 

masc. 

(il)  suo 

(i)  suoi 

fern. 

(la)  sua 

(le)  sue 

my,  mine. 
>  thy,  thine  (your,  yours), 
f-  his,  her,  hers  (your,  yours). 

1  Cf.  French  mon  and  le  mien,  which  more  resemble  the  English. 


POSSESSIVES.  99 


our,  ours. 


Singular.  Plural. 

masc.  (il)  ngstro  (i)  n9stri 

fem.     (la)  rostra  (le)  ngstre 

masc.  (il)  v9stro  (i)  v9stri       ) 

fem.     (la)  v9stra  (le)  V9stre    \  * 

masc.  (il)  loro  (i)  loro          )              theirs 

fem.    (la)  loro  (le)  loro        )                         w         7 

II  mio  amico  §  malato.     My  friend  is  ill. 
Dov'  |  tua  madre  ?     Where  is  your  mother? 
Di  chi  sono  le  armi  che  porta  ?     Whose  arms  are  you 
carrying  ? 

I  suoi,  signore.     Yours,  sir. 

135.  The  article  is  omitted  with  the  possessive  in 
the  cases  mentioned,  45,  (1),  (2),  (3),  and  (5): 

Parlami,  amico  mio.     Cosa  vuo,le,  signorino  mio  ? 

II  bambino  ama  suo  padre.  II  mio  buon  padre  me  1'  ha 
detto,  a  me  ed  al  mio  fratellino.1 

Essa  fu  presentata  a  Sua  Maesta. 
Mia  moglie  §  qui.     Le  presenter^  la  mia  consorte.2 
Ha  visto  mio  frateho?    N9,  non  hg  visto  il  suo  germane2 
Exceptions:  (a)  The  article  may  never  be  omitted 
with  loro: 

■ 

II  loro  padre  lo  crede. 

(b)  Sometimes  in  addressing  a  person  of  rank  the 
possessive  is  placed  after  the  noun,  in  which  case  the 
article  is  placed  before  it: 

Sono  obbligatissimo  all*  Eccellenza  Vo,stra.  I  am  under 
great  obligations  to  Your  Excellency. 

136.  The  article  is  also  omitted: 

(1)  Where  the  noun  has  an  indefinite,  partitive,  or 
limited  sense: 

Non  §  amico  mio.     He  is  no  friend  of  mine. 

1  Why  are  the  articles  used  in  this  example?     Cf.  45  (2)  ,  Remark. 

2  Why  the  article  before  cons9rte,  germano,  and  not  before 
moglie,  fratello? 


ioo  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

Queste  sono  mie  figlie.  These  are  my  daughters  ( = 
daughters  of  mine,  some  of  my  daughters). 

But: 

Queste  sono  le  mie  figlie.  These  are  my  daughters  (  = 
all  of  my  daughters). 

Quel  libro  §  mio.  That  book  is  mine  (=it  is  one  of  my 
books,  not  of  yours). 

Quelli  sono  i  mie,i  libri.  Those  are  my  books  (=all  the 
books  now  in  question). 

5  Sua  questa  casa  ?     Do  you  own  this  house? 

|)  la  Sua  casa  ?     Is  this  your  home?  * 

(2)   In  a  number  of  set  phrases,  such  as: 

Con  vgstra  lic§nza.     By  your  leave. 

Non  I  colpa  mia.     It  is  not  my  fault. 

Per  causa  vostra.     On  your  account. 

Da  parte  mia.     For  my  part. 

Vado  in  tua  vece.     I  go  in  your  stead. 

137.  The  use  of  the  possessive  is  much  more  re- 
stricted in  Italian  than  in  English,  it  being  replaced 
by  (1)  the  definite  article;  (2)  the  definite  article  and 
a  conjunctive  pronoun. 

(1)  Where  the  subject  of  the  sentence  is  the  pos- 
sessor, or  where  for  other  reasons  there  could  be  no 
ambiguity,  the  definite  article  is  used  instead  of  the 
possessive  2 : 

Pr§ndo  il  quad§rno  nella  mano.3  I  take  the  copy-book 
in  my  hand. 

Portami  il  soprabito.     Bring  me  my  overcoat. 

Dammi  la  mano.     Give  me  your  hand. 

1  However,  casa  mia  is  often  used  for  "at  home"  without    the 

article. 

2Cf.  44(8). 

3  Sometimes  even  the  article  is  omitted:     Prendo  il   quaderno  in 

mano. 


POSSESSIVEvS.  ioi 

Hg   freddo  ai  pi§di  or  H9  i  pie,di    freddi..    .My  feet  are 

cold.1  - 

II  bambino  cerca  la  mamma.  The  child  is  looking:  f.or  his 
mother. 

(2)  With  reflexive  verbs,  or  with  verbs  not  reflexive 
but  accompanied  by  a  conjunctive  personal  pronoun 
indicating  the  person  to  whom,  the  possessive  is  re- 
placed by  an  article2: 

Si  lavi  la  faccia.  Let  him  wash  his  face,  he  must  wash 
his  face  (literally,  "let  him  wash  to  himself  the  face"). 

Mi  sono  rotto  una  gamba.  I  have  broken  my  leg  (one 
of  my  legs). 

Le  hanno  tagliato  i  capelli.     They  have  cut  off  her  hair. 

138.  The  possessive  agrees  in  person  with  the  pos- 
sessor, in  gender  and  number  with  the  noun  denoting 
the  object  possessed.  It  follows  that  suo  padre  means 
as  well  "her  father"  as  "his  father",  sua  madre,  "his 
mother"  or  "her  mother".  The  meaning  is  in  most 
cases  made  clear  by  the  context,  but  where  the  sense 
might  be  ambiguous  di  lui,  di  l§i  are  used  instead  of 
the  possessive  of  the  third  person  singular : 

Egli  non  ha  mai  conosciuto  la  di  lui  madre ;  ama  molto 
la  di  l§i.     He  never  knew  his  mother;  he  loves  hers  dearly. 

(Exercises  XXVI  and  XXVII.) 
*Cf.  84.  2Cf.  98  (2). 


102  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


*.«■ 


'CHAPTER  X. 


ifel&ONSTRATIVES,  RELATIVES,  INTERROGATIVES, 

INDEFINITES. 

139.  Demonstratives,  like  possessives,  may  be  either 
adjectives  or  pronouns.  They  have  forms  which  may 
be  used  as  either  and  forms  which  are  always  used 
pronominally  and  only  to  represent  persons. 

1.  Adjective  or  Pronominal  Forms. 

Singular.         Plural. 

masc.  questo  questi  j  these_ 

fern,    questa  queste  ) 

masc.  cotesto1  cotesti 

fern,    cotesta  coteste 

masc.  quello  quelli,  quegli,  quei2 

fern,    quella  quelle 


that,  those. 


2.  Pronominal  Forms  (used  only  of  Persons). 

questi,  this  man.  costoro,    these    men,     these 

costui,  this  man,  often  in  a  quegli t  )    .  [women.3 

contemptuous    sense,    this  colui,    ) 

fellow.  col§i,  that  woman,  [women. 

cost§i,  this  woman.  coloro,    those    men,     those 

140.  To  these  must  be  added   cio,  "this",  "that", 

1  Or  codesto,  codesti,  etc. 

2  Sometimes  shortened  into  que'. 

3  Notice  that  the  forms  meaning  "this"  all  have  some  trace  of 
the  Latin  Tste,  those  meaning  "that",  with  the  single  exception  of 
cotesto,  some  trace  of  llle.  For  the  contemptuous  sense  of  costui 
cf.  that  of  iste.  Costei,  costoro,  colui,  colei,  coloro,  sometimes,  but 
not  frequently,  have  this  contemptuous  sense. 


DEMONSTRATIVES.  103 

which  is  an  invariable   pronoun,   representing  not  a 
person  or  thing,  but  a  concept  or  phrase: 

IJcco  ci9  che  I19  detto.      That  is  what   I  said   (=that 
which  I  said). 

Remarks  on  the  Demonstratives. 

141.  Questo  and  cotesto  usually  drop  final  o  before 
a  vowel.     Quello  is  inflected  like  b§llo  (115) : 

Quest'  UQmo ;  cotest'  ugmo ;  quell'  uomo ;  quest'  (Jpera ; 
quello  z§lo ;  in  questi  campi  e  in  quelli. 

142.  Questo  and  quello  are  vised  like  English  "this" 
and  "that",  questo  for  that  which  is  near  the  speaker, 
quello  for  that  which  is  remote.  But  the  existence  of 
two  words  for  "that"  allows  of  greater  perspicuity 
than  in  English,  cotesto  being  used  of  that  which  is 
near  the  person  spoken  to,  quello  of  that  which  is  remote 
from  him: 

Prendete  questo  libro  e  datemi  cotesto,  e  pgi  cercatemi 
quell'  altro  per  piacere.  Take  this  book  (which  is  near  me) 
and  give  me  that  one  (which  is  near  you),  and  then  look  for 
that  other  one  (which  is  remote  from  both)  for  me,  please. 

143.  Quello  and  quegli  are  also  used  for  "the  former", 
questo  and  questi  for  "the  latter"  : 

Desidera  i  fiori  azzurri  0  i  fiori  rossi?  Desidero  questi 
(=i  fiori  rossi),  non  quelli  (=i  fiori  azzurri). 

144.  The  forms  which  are  both  adjectives  and  pro- 
nouns are  not  used  in  the  singular  as  subject  pronouns 
representing  nouns,  the  corresponding  pronominal 
forms  being  then  preferred.  They  are,  however,  used 
in  the  singular  as  objectives  and  in  the  plural  either 
as  subjects  or  as  objects,  to  represent  persons  as  well 
as  things: 


104  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

H9  parlato  con  Alessandro,  e  ho  capito  che  questi  (or 
questo  Alessandro,  but  not  questo  alone)  ti  vuol  b§ne.     I 

have  spoken  with  Alexander  and  I  understood  that  he 
(=this  one,  this  Alexander  of  whom  we  are  speaking)  is 
well  inclined  towards  you. 

Hai  parlato  con  quegli  altri?  Have  you  spoken  with 
those  others? 

Quelli  (or  coloro)  che  ho  visto  non  hanno  voluto  parlare. 
Those  whom  I  saw  did  not  want  to  talk. 

Relatives. 

145.  The  relatives  are: 
che,  who,  whom,  that,  which. 

il  quale,  i  quali,  la  quale,  le  quali,  who,  whom,  that  which. 
cui,  whom,  to  whom,  whose. 
chi,  the  one  who,  any  one  who,  whoever. 
onde,  of  whom,  of  which,  with   whom,  with  which,  by 
whom,  by  which,  etc. 

(a)  These  forms  are  all  pronouns,  although  il  quale  is 
sometimes  used  with  a  noun : 

II  quale  padre  Crist^foro.     This  Father  Christopher. 

(b)  The  first  three  are  much  more  frequent  than  the 
others. 

Remarks  on  the  Relatives. 

146.  Che  is  invariable.  It  is  generally  used  only  as 
subject  or  direct  object.  II  quale,  which  is  inflected 
throughout  by  combination  with  the  various  forms  of 
the  article,  is  used  for  all  cases.  As  a  subject  or  direct 
object  che1  is  preferred  to  it  excepting  where  ambiguity 
might  result  from  its  invariableness  of  form: 

1  Che  is  a  noun  in  the  expressions:   un  bel  che,  un  gran  che. 


RELATIVES.  105 

V  1191110  che  parla  §  mio  padre.  The  man  who  is  speak- 
ing is  my  father. 

II  giovane  che  vede  li  §  il  mio  amico.  The  young  man 
whom  you  see  there  is  my  friend. 

L'  ugmo  del  quale  parliamo  §  il  suo  nemico.  The  man  of 
whom  we  are  speaking  is  your  enemy. 

IJcco  r  ugmo  colla  dgnna  la  quale  abbiamo  vista  i§ri. 
There  is  the  man  with  the  woman  whom  we  saw  yesterday. 
(IJcco  1'  ugmo  colla  donna  che  abbiamo  visto  would  be 
ambiguous,  since  che  might  refer  either  to  the  man,  the 
woman  or  both.) 

Sono  i  figli  della  signora  la  quale  abbiamo  incontrata. 
They  are  the  children  of  the  lady  whom  we  met. 

(a)  Che,  meaning  "which"  and  referring  to  a  whole 
clause,  is  a  sort  of  neuter.  It  usually  takes  the  definite 
article1: 

L§i  non  dice  ni§nte,  il  che  vuol  dire  che  non  n'  §  cont§nto 
You  say  nothing,  which  indicates  that  you  are  not  pleased 
about  it. 

147.  Cui  is  invariable.  It  is  used  as  an  indirect 
object,  generally  but  not  always  with  a  preposition.2 
It  is  interchangeable  in  many  cases  with  del  quale, 
della  quale,  dei  quali,  al  quale,  etc.: 

La  signora  cui  (a  cui,  alia  quale)  parla  §  mia  zia.  The 
lady  to  whom  he  is  talking  is  my  aunt. 

IJcco  la  persona  cui  (di  cui,  della  quale)  Le  I19  parlato. 
Here  is  the  person  of  whom  I  spoke  to  you. 

Questa  §  la  ragione  per  cui  presto  partir  risolvo.  This 
is  the  reason  on  account  of  which  I  am  resolved  to  go  away 
at  once. 

1  It  is  found  in  older  Italian  without  it. 

2  Cui  is  sometimes  found  instead  of  il  quale  as  direct  object,  but 
this  usage  is  rare  and  is  really  contrary  to  the  nature  of  cui.  Cf. 
note  1,  p.  106. 


106  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

(a)  When  cui,  meaning  "whose",  is  used  without 
the  preposition  di,  it  should  be  placed  between  the 
noun  qualified  and  the  article  belonging  to  that  noun : 

L'  autore  le  cui  (Jpere  abbiamo  l§tto,  or  L'  autore  di  cui 
abbiamo  l§tto  le  (Jpere. 

In  this  example  the  difference  in  the  use  of  cui  and  il 
quale  is  clear.  One  could  substitute  for  the  latter  phrase: 
Ly  autore  del  quale  abbiamo  l§tto  le  (jpere,  but  one  could 
not  say :  L'  autore  i  quali  (Jpere  abbiamo  le, tto.  Cui  com- 
prehends in  itself  a  notion  of  some  prepositional  relation- 
ship.1 which  il  quale  does  not,  therefore  the  preposition 
which  may  be  omitted  with  the  former  must  be  expressed 
with  the  latter. 

148.  Chi  is  invariable.  It  is  less  frequent,  but 
where  used  often  more  elegant,  than  colui  che,  col§i 
che,  coloro  che,  which  have  the  same  meaning: 

Chi  ama,  teme  (or  colui  che  ama,  teme).  He  who  loves, 
fears. 

Chi  cerca  trovera.     He  who  seeks  shall  find. 

Consigliatevi  con  chi  ha  esperie,nza.  Take  counsel  with 
those  who  have  had  experience. 

Troverai  chi  t'  aiutera.  You  will  find  somebody  who  will 
help  you. 

(a)  Chi  .  .  .  chi  is  to  be  rendered  by  "some  .  .  .  some", 
"some  .  .  .  others",  "the  one  .  .  .  the  other",  or  the  like: 

Chi  va,  chi  vi§ne.     Some  are  going,  some  coming. 

Chi  ride,  chi  piange.     One  laughs,  the  other  weeps. 

149.  Onde  is  invariable.  It  always  has  a  sense  of 
prepositional  relationship : 

L'  anima  gloriosa  onde  si  parla  (or  della  quale  si  parla). 
The  glorious  soul  of  which  we  are  speaking. 

1  It  is  the  Latin  dative,  which  expresses  the  notion  of  possession, 
the  notion  of  the  preposition  "of"  as  well  as  that  of  the  preposi- 
tion "to".     Cf.  French:   A  qui  est  ce  chapeau? 


INTERROGATIVES.  1 07 

^cco  V  tiscio  onde  (or  pel  quale)  §ra  entrato.  This  is  the 
door  through  which  he  had  entered. 

(a)  Onde  is  the  least  frequent  of  the  relatives,  but 
like  chi  it  is  in  some  cases  more  concise  and  more  ele- 
gant than  the  forms  of  il  quale  which  must  otherwise 
be  used.1 

150.  The  relative  can  never  be  understood  in  Italian 
as  in  English,  but  must  be  always  expressed : 

L'  ugmo  che  hg  visto  e  le  me.rci  che  hg  comprato  da  lui. 
The  man  (whom)  I  saw  and  the  goods  (which)  I  bought  of 
him. 

151.  English  ' what"  =" that  wThich'  is  usually  to 
be  rendered  by  quell  o  or  cig  followed  by  che ;  '  what ' ' 
=  "  all  that  which ' '  by  quanto : 

5cco  cig  che  hg  detto.  This  is  what  (=that  which)  I 
said. 

Cig  §  quanto  mi  ha  detto.  This  is  all  (that  which)  he 
told  me. 

Aiuta  quanti  pug.     He  helps  all  (those  whom)  he  can. 

Interrogatives. 

152.  The  interrogatives  are: 

chi,  who,  whom.2  quale,3  which,  what. 

che,  what.  quanto,  how  much,  how  many. 

Remarks  on  the  Interrogatives. 

153.  Chi  is  always  a  pronoun.  It  is  invariable.  It 
is  used  only  of  persons : 

1  It  is  derivatively  an  adverb  (unde) ,  and  might  be  called  an 
adverbial  relative  or  a  relative  adverb.  Cf.  the  pronominal  ad- 
verbs ne,  ci,  vi,  97. 

2  Di  chi,  "whose".     See  examples. 

3  It  does  not  take  the  article,  as  does  quale  relative. 


108  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Chi  §?  Who  is  it?  Chi  sono  queste  d9nne?  Who  are 
these  women? 

Di  chi  parlate?     Of  whom  are  you  speaking? 

Di  chi  sono  questi  fiori?     Whose  flowers  are  these? 

154.  Che  is  sometimes  a  pronoun,  sometimes  an  ad- 
jective. It  is  always  invariable.  As  a  pronoun  it  is 
used  only  of  things,  as  an  adjective  it  may  also  be  used 
of  persons: 

Che  cerca?     What  are  you  looking  for? 
Che  persona  ha  visto?    (less  common  than  Chi  ha  visto?) 
What  person  have  you  seen? 

(a)  Che  co,sa  is  frequently  used  for  "what": 
Che  co,sa  ha  visto? 

155.  Quale  is  either  a  pronoun  or  an  adjective.  It 
is  in  either  case  inflected  like  any  adjective  ending  in  e. 
It  is  used  both  of  persons  and  things : 

Quale  dei  due  ragazzi  §  la?  Which  of  the  two  boys  is 
there  ? 

jj  un  ugmo  che  aspgtta.     It  is  a  man  who  is  waiting. 

Qual  ugmo?     What  man? 

Quali  ragioni  ha  per  crederlo?  What  reasons  have  you 
for  thinking  so  ? 

156.  Quanto  is  either  a  pronoun,  an  adjective,  or  an 
adverb.1  Except  in  the  latter  case  it  is  inflected  like 
any  adjective  ending  in  o : 

Quanto  vuo,le?     How  much  do  you  want  ? 
Quante  s§die  sonvi?     How  many  seats  are  there? 
(a)  Tutto  quanto  (-i,  -a,  -e)  means  "all": 
Li  ha  visti  tutti  quanti.     He  has  seen  them  all. 

157.  All  these  interrogatives  except  chi  may  also  be 
used  in  exclamations.  They  are  not  accompanied  by 
the  article  as  in  English: 

1  Cf.  121  and  128. 


INDEFINITES.  109 

Che  peccato!     What  a  pity! 

Qual  1191110 !     What  a  man ! 

Quanti  dispiaceri!     How  many  troubles! 

Indefinites. 

158.  The  following  are  the  principal  indefinite  pro- 
nouns : 

alcuno,  -i,  -a,  -e,  some,  any.  ni§nte,  nulla,  nothing. 

altri,  another  (altri  .  .  .  altri,  ognuno,  everybody. 

one  .  .  .  another).  parecchi,  several, 

altrui,  of  another,  to  another,  piu,  i  phi,  most,  the  most. 

of  others,  to  others.  qualchecgsa, something, any- 

altro,   something  else,   any-  thing. 

thing  else.  qualcuno,  qualcheduno,  any 

certuno,1  a  certain  person.  one. 

ciascuno,  ciascheduno,  every,  taluno,3  such  an  one. 

every  one.  tutto,  -i,  -a,  -e,   everything, 

checchesia        (checchessia),  every  one,  all. 

checche,2    whatever,    any  veruno,  nobody. 

whatever.  uno,  one. 

chiunque,    chicchesia,    who-  1'  uno  e  V  altro,  gli  uni  e  gli 

ever,  any  one  whatever.  altri,4  both. 
nessuno,  niuno,  no  one. 

1  Rare.  This,  like  ciascuno,  nessuno,  etc.,  is  a  compound  of  uno, 
"one". 

2  Not  often  used  in  modern  Italian.  Observe  that  this  is  formed 
from  che  +  che,  checchesia  from  che  +  che  +  sia,  chicchesia  from  chi 
+  che  +  sia,  etc. 

3  Rare. 

4  Fern.  Puna  e  l'altra,  le  une  e  le  altre.  Ambedue  also  means 
"both",  but  the  commonest  expression  is  tutti  e  due.  "All 
three"  =tutti  e  tre,  "all  four"  =tutti  e  quattro,  etc. 


HO  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Remarks  on  the  Indefinite  Pronouns. 

159.  Altri1  is  used  as  either  subject  or  object,  altrui 
always  denotes  some  prepositional  relationship.  Both 
are  used  of  persons  only,  altro  only  of  things: 

Altri  §  li§to,  altri  misero.  One  is  happy,  the  other  (an- 
other) miserable. 

Io  non  v9glio  (la)  rgba  altrui  (or  d'  altri).  I  do  not  want 
other  people's  property. 

Non  ha  detto  altro?  No,  ni§nte  di  piu.  Did  he  not  say 
anything  else?     No,  nothing  more. 

160.  Checchesia  and  chicchesia  being  really  phrases 
are  not  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb.  Other  phrases 
meaning  " whatever ' '  are:  qualsivoglia,  qualsiasi,  tutto 
quel  che,  quale  che  sia,  per  quanto,2  etc. : 

Non  lo  dir§  a  chicchesia.  I  shall  not  tell  it  to  any  one 
whatever. 

Non  dirg  checchesia.     I  shall  not  say  anything  whatever. 

Quali  che  siano  i  suoi  talenti,  non  parla  b§ne.  Whatever 
his  talents  may  be,  he  does  not  speak  well. 

Chiunque  tema  torni  a  casa. 

Per  quanti  tale,nti  abbia,  non  lavora.  Whatever  talents 
he  may  have,  he  does  not  work. 

161.  Nessuno  is  commoner  in  every-day  Italian  than 
niuno  or  veruno,  and  ni§nte  than  nulla.  Nulla  is  more 
adapted  to  the  elevated  style.  Non  is  often  used  with 
all  these  negatives: 

Vi  §  nessuno  in  casa?     Is  there  nobody  at  home? 
Non  vi  §  nessuno.     There  is  nobody. 
Che  cgsa  dice?     Ni§nte.     What  are  you  saying?     Noth- 
ing. 

1  A  feminine,  altra,  is  also  found. 

2  Most  phrases  of  like  meaning  are  followed  by  the  subjunctive. 
Cf.  232  (4)  (a). 


PREFIXES  AND   SUFFIXES.  in 

Non  ne  so  nulla.     I  know  nothing  about  it. 

Vergogna  e  dovere  sono  un  nulla  per  lui.  Shame  and 
duty  are  nothing  to  him. 

(a)  Alcuno  with  non  also  means  "no  one": 

Non  v'  §  alcuno  che  capisca.  There  is  no  one  who  under- 
stands. 

162.  Many  indefinite  adjectives  are  sometimes  used 
as  nouns.  Alcuno,  ciascuno,  nessuno,  ognuno,  may  also 
be  used  as  adjectives: 

Ho  comprato  alcuni  giornali  illustrati.  I  have  bought 
some  illustrated  newspapers. 

Non  trovo  nessun  rime'dio.     I  find  no  remedy. 

Ho  visto  quel  tale.     I  have  seen  that  individual. 

Molti  sono  partiti,  ma  non  tutti.  Many  have  gone  away, 
but  not  all. 

Ogni  and  qualche  are  always  adjectives.  Cf.  118, 
(a)  and  (b). 

(Exercises  XXVIII  and  XXIX.) 

CHAPTER  XI. 

PREFIXES  AND  SUFFIXES. 

163.  The  meaning  of  nouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs1 
is  frequently  modified  in  Italian  by  the  use  of  prefixes 
and  suffixes,  especially  the  latter. 

164.  The  prefixes  arci-,  sopra-,  sovra-,  and  stra-  are 
used  with  nouns  and  adjectives.  They  all  have  a  super- 
lative meaning.     They  are  not  very  frequent2: 

1  Adverbs  are  less  often  modified  than  adjectives,  and  adjectives 
less  often  than  nouns. 

2  All  these  prefixes  are  also  used  with  verbs,  and  most  of  the 
forms  produced  by  compounding  with  them  are  considered  as 
separate  words.  They  belong  therefore  to  word-building  and  to 
the  province  of  the  dictionary,  not  to  the  grammar. 


H2  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Arcibe.Ho,  very  beautiful;  arcibriccone,  arch-scoundrel; 
soprabbondevole,  superabundant;  sopraeccitabile,  very  ex- 
citable; sopraeccitabilita,  overexcitability ;  sopraccarico, 
overburdened,  overloaded;  il  sovrappiu,  the  excess ;  sovrap- 
pi§no,  overfull;  strata,  an  unusual,  unreasonable  hour; 
stragrande,  very  large. 

165.  Suffixes  are  very  numerous.  They  may  ex- 
press shades  of  meaning  so  various  and  sometimes  so 
elusive  that  only  wide  reading  can  enable  the  foreigner 
fully  to  understand  their  use.  They  constitute,  how- 
ever, one  of  the  great  charms  of  the  language. 

Suffixes  may  be  classified  according  to  their  meaning 
as  diminutives,  augmentative 's,  as  terms  expressive  of 
endearment,  of  disparagement,  or  of  deteriority.1 

166.  The  principal  diminutives  are  (those  oftenest 
used  being  placed  first) :  -ino  (-cino, 2  -icino,  -iccino, 
-olino) ;  -etto  (-osetto)  (often  with  a  sense  of  endear- 
ment) ;  -e,llo  (-c§llo,  -ar§llo,  er§llo,  -ic§llo) ;  -uccio  (often 
with  a  pejorative  sense) ;  -U9I0  (-9I0,  -eruglo,  -ettu9lo, 
-iciottalo,  -icolo,  -iccu9lo) ;  ~9tto  (used  as  a  noun  di- 
minutive only  in  speaking  of  the  young  of  animals 
cf.  167);  -9ccio;  -ognolo,  -fccio;  -igno;  -astro,  -ticolo, 
-uzzo,  -uzzolo  (all  four  pejorative)3: 

Ragazzo,  boy;  ragazzino,4  ragazzu9lo,  little  boy;  ragaz- 
zetto,  dear  little  boy;  ragazzuccio,  naughty  little  boy. 

1  In  Italian:  diminutivi,  accrescitivi,  vezzeggiativi,  peggiorativi 
(dispregiativi) . 

2Cf.  171  (b). 

3  Added  to  adjectives  of  color  -astro  is  a  diminutive:  giallo,  "yel- 
low"; giallastro,  "yellowish".  Otherwise  it  is  pejorative.  -Iccio, 
-igno,  and  -ognolo  are  all  used  with  adjectives:  gialliccio,  'yel- 
lowish";  asprigno,  "somewhat  harsh". 

'  Words  to  which  a  suffix  has  been  added  are  accented  as  though 
that  suffix  were  an  integral  part  of  them:  ragazzino,  etc. 


PREFIXES  AXD   SUFFIXES.  113 

Fiume,  river;  fiumicello,  little  river;  flumicolo,  insig- 
nificant little  stream. 

Figlio,  son ;  figliu9lo  (which  has  lost  its  diminutive  sense), 
figliuolino,  little  son. 

Braccio,  arm;  bracciuglo,  arm  of  chair. 

Via,  street;  viuzza,  narrow  street,  alley. 

Cane,  dog;  cagnolino,  pretty  little  dog. 

Aquila,  eagle;  aquillgtto,  eaglet. 

Orso,  bear;  orsacchio^to,  bear's  cub. 

Grande ,  large ;  grandino,  somewhat  large. 

Caro,  dear;  carino,  winning,  Deary  (epithet). 

Pallido,  pale;  paliduccio,  rather  pale. 

Grazioso,  graceful,  pleasing;  graziosetto,  graziosettino, 
pretty,  charming. 

Grasso,fat;  grass^ccio,  plump. 

Verde,  green;  verdastro,  greenish. 

Piano,  softly;  veniva  pianino,  he  came  quite  softly, 
quietly. 

167.  The  principal  augmentatives  are :  -one  (-done, 
-accione,  -oncione),  -gtto,1  and  for  adjectives  -uto: 

Do,nna,  woman;  il  donnone,  the  big  woman. 

Ragazzo^to,  big  strong  boy. 

Naso,  nose;  nasuto  (adj.  formed  from  it),  long-nosed. 

168.  The  principal  suffixes  indicative  of  endearment 
are  -ino,  -olino,  -etto,  already  mentioned  under  dimin- 
utives. The  context  shows  whether  the  meaning  is 
endearing  or  diminutive. 

169.  The  principal  pejoratives  are  -accio,  -astro, 
-azzo,  and  those  already  mentioned  under  diminutives 
(-ucolo,  -uzzo,  etc.) : 

Poeta,  poet;  poetastro,  poor  poet,  poetaster.2 

1  Added  to  the  names  of  animals  -9tto  is,  as  stated  in  166,  a 
diminutive. 

2  Which  is  in  fact  the  Italian  word. 


H4  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

Giovine,  young  man;  giovinastro,  dissolute  youth. 
St^fano,  Stephen;   Stefanaccio.  naughty  Stephen., 
Amore,  love;   amorazzo,  illicit  love. 
Frate,  monk;  fratuzzo,  monk  of  bad  habits. 

170.  The  suffixes  have  in  many  cases  lost  their  origi- 
nal meaning: 

Conte,  count,  contessa,  countess;  il  contino  e  la  contes- 
sina,  the  young  (not  "little")  count  and  countess  (for  in- 
stance, the  son  and  daughter-in-law  of  the  conte). 

Casa,  house;  casino,  country-house,  club-house.  (Casetta, 
casuccia — "little  house" — the  latter  usually  "wretched  lit- 
tle house".) 

(a)  In  the  same  way  frat§llo,  originally  a  diminutive 
from  frate  (which  latter  now  means  only  "brother  in  a 
religious  order",  "monk"),  means  "brother",  and  a 
new  diminutive  formed  from  it,  fratellino — "little 
brother".  In  figliastro,  "stepson",  there  is  no  sense 
of  disparagement,  just  as  there  is  none  of  the  diminu- 
tive in  matrigna,  "stepmother",  or  in  matrina,  "god- 
mother " . 1 

171.  The  final  vowel  is  usually  dropped  before  a 
suffix : 

Testa,  head;  testolina,  little  head. 

Pazzo,  fool;  pazzerello.  Contadina,  peasant  woman; 
contadinetta,  strong  peasant  woman. 

(a)  If  the  consonant  preceding  this  final  vowel  be  a 
c  or  a  g  it  retains  its  quality : 

P9C0,  little;  pochino,  a  little  bit. 

Fresco,  fresh,  cool.  Per  non  scendere  giu.  in  chiesa,  a 
mattutino,  quando  faceva  freschetto,  avevano  ordinato  la 

1  In  all  these  words  the  suffixes  have  simply  been  incorporated, 
being  used  as  an  element  for  word-building.  In  others,  as  scod^lla, 
"dish",  -the  diminutive  sense  of  the  sullix  was  probably  lost  in 
Latin. 


PREFIXES  AND   SUFFIXES.  115 

costruzione  d'  un  a'tro  C9ro,  chiamato  Co,™  di  n9tte,  in 
me,zzo  al  convento.  In  order  not  to  have  to  go  down  into 
the  church  early  in  the  morning,  when  it  was  rather  cool, 
they  had  ordered  the  construction  of  another  choir  called 
the  night  choir,  in  the  central  portion  of  the  convent. 

(b)  Euphony  must  be  considered  in  choosing  the 
suffix.  The  latter  should  never  be  identical  in  sound 
with  the  termination  of  the  noun.  It  is  euphony 
which  decides  also  in  what  cases  -cino,  -icino,  etc., 
should  be  used  instead  of  -ino,  etc. : 

Contadina,  contadinella,  not  contadinina. 

Capp§llo,  hat,  cappellino,  not  cappellello. 

Cappone,  capon,  capponcione,  not  capponone,  fat  capon. 

(c)  A  modified  adjective  is  not  often  used  with  a 
modified  noun: 

Un  bell'  uccellino  or  un  uccello  bellino,  but  not  un  uccel- 
lino  bellino. 

172.  Most  suffixes  are  made  feminine  quite  regu- 
larly by  changing  their  final  o  into  a.  However  the 
masculine  form  is  not  infrequently  added  to  a  feminine 
noun,  which  then  becomes  masculine: 

La  tavola,  il  tavolino. 

The  suffix -one  usuallv  makes  all  nouns  to  which  it  is 

•  J 

added  masculine,  the  feminine  form  -ona  being  very  rarely 
used: 

La  sala,  il  salone.     La  dgnna,  il  donnone. 

{Exercises  XXX  and  XXXI.^ 


n6  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

IRREGULAR  VERBS.  IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 
DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

173.  We  have  seen  (67  and  68)  that  regular  verbs 
form  their  tenses  by  adding  certain  endings,  which  vary 
with  the  conjugation  (67)  to  a  stem  which  is  invari- 
able.1 In  many  irregular  verbs  the  stem  is  variable.2 
The  variations  of  the  stem  are  the  result  of:  (a)  con- 
traction;   (b)  the  stressing  of  the  stem-vowel.3 

All  irregular  verbs  except  §ssere  have  certain  parts 
which  remain  regular. 

174.  Contraction  of  the  infinitive  may  occur  espe- 
cially where  the  initial  vowel  of  the  infinitive  ending 
is  unstressed,  that  is  to  say,  in  '-ere  verbs: 

Dire,  to  say  (contracted  from  dicere). 

One  cannot  call  the  form  dire  itself  irregular,  yet 
the  fact  that  parts  of  the  verb  are  quite  regularly 
formed  from  the  uncontracted  infinitive  dicere4  give 
the  whole  system  an  appearance  of  irregularity : 

Dic-eva.     He  was  saying.5 

175.  The  future  and  conditional  being  formed  from 
the  infinitive, e  exhibit,  where  the  latter  is  contracted, 
the  same  contracted  form: 

1  In  other  words,  regular  verbs  are  weak.  Irregular  verbs  are 
for  the  most  part  strong. 

2  Some  grammarians  prefer  to  say  that  the  verb  has  several 
stems. 

3  The  secret  of  all  variations  is  really  change  of  stress. 

4  Which  does  not  exist  in  modern  Italian. 

5  Which  is  in  fact  a  perfectly  regular  form. 

6  These  tenses  are  composed  of  the  infinitive  followed  by  the  pres- 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  117 

Dir§.      1  shall  say.     Direbbe.     He  would  say. 
But  they  may  be  contracted  when  the  infinitive  is 
not  and  cannot  be : 

Tenere,  to  hold.     Terrg.     I  shall  hold.1 

176.  Those  parts  of  the  verb  in  which  the  accent 
falls  on  the  stem,  i.e.,  the  present,  indicative  and  sub- 
junctive (except  the  second  person  plural),  the  singular 
imperative,  and  the  preterite  (except  the  second  person 
singular  and  the  first  and  second  persons  plural)  are 
the  parts  oftenest  irregular.  The  past  participle  is 
also  frequently  irregular: 

Trarre,  to  draw  (contracted  from  traere); 

Traggo,  I  draw;  Trassi,  I  drew. 

But:  Traeva,  I  was  drawing,  etc.,  regular. 

177.  As  we  have  seen  (173),  Italian  irregular  verbs 
are,  with  the  single  exception  of  §ssere,  regular  in  cer- 
tain parts.  In  the  model  irregular  verbs  given  below 
those  which  are  regular  in  all  irregular  verbs  (except 
those  mentioned  under  180)  are  marked  with  an 
asterisk. 

(a)  Trarre  (contracted  from  traere) ,  to  draw,  drag. 


Present  Participle. 

Past  Participle. 

*tra§ndo 

INDICATIVE. 

tratto 

Present. 

Future. 

traggo                    traiamo 

trarro3 

trarremo 

trai  (traggi)2       *traete 

trarrai 

trarrete 

trae  (tragge)          traggono 

trarra 

trarranno 

ent  or  the  preterite  of    avere  —  mostrare  +  ho  >  mostrerp    (literally, 
"I  have  to  show"),  servire +  §bbe>  servirebbe  ("he  had  to  serve"). 

1  This  is  because  the  accent,  which  in  the  infinitive  falls  on  the 
antepenult,  preventing  contraction  (tenere),  is  in  the  compound 
thrown  on  the  penult  —  tenere  +ho>  tenere? >  terrQ.  Tener9  does 
not  exist  in  modern  Italian. 

2  The  forms  bracketed  are  less  frequent. 

3  Regularly  formed  from  the  infinitive  trarre. 


n8 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


Imperfect. 

*traeva*  *traevamo 

*traevi  *traevate 

*traeva  *traevano 

Preterite. 

trassi  *traemmo 

*traesti  *traeste 

trasse  trassero 


INDICATIVE. 

Conditional. 

trarrei2  trarremmo 

trarresti  trarreste 

trarrebbe  trarrfbbero 


Imperative. 


trai 


traete 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present.  Imperfect. 

tragga  tragghiamo  *traessi  *traessimo 

tragga  tragghiate  *traessi  *traeste 

tragga  traggano  *traesse  *traessero 

(6)   Venire,  to  come. 


Present  Participle. 

Past  Participle. 

*venendo 

INDICATIVE. 

venuto 

Present. 

Future. 

vengo 

veniamo 

verr§ 

verremo 

vieni 

*venite 

verrai 

verrete 

viene 

vfngono 

verra 

verranno 

Imperfect. 

*veniva  *venivamo 

*veniva  *venivate 

*veniva  *venivano 

Preterite. 

venni  *venimmo 

*venisti  *veniste 

venne  vennero 


Conditional. 

verrei  verremmo 

verresti  verreste 

verrebbe  verrfbbero 

Imperative. 

vieni  venite 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present.  Imperfect. 

venga  (vegna)  veniamo3  *venissi  *venissimo 

venga  (vegna)  veniate  *venissi  *veniste 

venga  (vegna)  vfngano  (vfgnano)  *venisse  *venissero 

1  These  parts  are  regularly  formed  from  the  infinitive  traere. 

2  These  parts  are  regularly  formed  from  the  infinitive  trarre. 

3  Sometimes  v§nghiamo. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  119 

178.  In  these  verbs  are  seen  three  modifications  of 
the  stem,  or,  if  one  prefers  to  call  them  so,  three  stems: 
(1)  The  present  stem,  from  which  are  formed  the 
present  indicative  and  subjunctive  and  the  impera- 
tive; (2)  The  preterite  stem,  from  which  is  formed 
only  the  preterite,  and  only  a  part  of  the  preterite; 
(3)  The  infinitive  stem,  formed  by  a  contraction  of  the 
infinitive  and  often  found  where  the  infinitive  itself 
remains  uncontracted,  in  the  future  and  conditional 
(which  are  irregular  only  in  so  far  as  they  exhibit  this 
contraction).  To  these  might  be  added:  (4)  The  im- 
perfect stem,  which  is  in  fact  the  original  and  regular 
infinitive  stem .  Whether  the  infinitive  itself  or  only  the 
future  and  conditional  be  contracted,  the  imperfect 
indicative  and  subjunctive,  the  present  participle,  the 
second  person  plural  present  indicative,  the  second 
person  singular  and  plural  and  the  first  person  plural 
of  the  preterite  are  formed  from  this  uncontracted  in- 
finitive (or  imperfect  stem),  and  so  are  regular  in  all 
irregular  verbs. 

(a)  The  past  participle  may  be,  but  is  not  always, 
irregular.  The  Latin  forms  often  explain  and  impress 
upon  the  memory  the  Italian  irregularities : 

tratto <  tractum ,  detto <  dictum ,  etc. 

(b)  The  second  person  plural  present  indicative 
might  be  called  irregular  only  in  the  verbs  dare,  dire 
(s'ssere1),  fare,  stare,  for  which  see  180.  The  impera- 
tive usually  follows  the  present  indicative.  It  may 
be,  although  it  is  not  often,  irregular.  Where  it  is 
so,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  verb  sapere,  it  follows  the 
present  subjunctive: 

1  Which  is  entirely  irregular. 


120  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

sapete,  you  know;  sappiate,  you  may  know. 
sappiate,  know  (ye).1 

(c)  It  will  be  observed  that  in  the  model  verbs  as 
in  many  others,  the  first  person  singular  and  the 
third  person  plural  of  the  present  differ  slightly  in 
their  irregularity  from  the  other  persons  of  that  tense, 
and  that  the  present  subjunctive  follows  these  two 
forms: 

Traggo,  traggono,  tragga;  vengo,  v§'ngono,  venga,  etc. 

(d)  It  will  also  be  observed  that  all  the  irregular 
forms  except  the  future  and  conditional  (which  are 
simply  contracted  forms)  are  strong,  i.e.,  stressed  on 
the  stem.     Cf.  176. 

Constructing  Irregular  Verbs. 

179.  By  observing  for  certain  verbs  the  remarks 
under  180,  any  irregular  verb  (except  §'ssere)  may  be 
constructed  after  these  models,  the  infinitive,  the  par- 
ticiples, the  present  indicative,  and  the  first  person 
singular  of  the  preterite   and  future2  being  known. 

The  first  person  singular  of  the  present  indicative 
gives  the  third  person  plural,3  and  the  present  sub- 
junctive, except,  in  some  verbs,  the  first  and  second 
persons  plural.  The  second  person  singular  of  the 
present  indicative  gives  the  singular  imperative.  (Cf. 
also  180  (3).)  The  first  person  singular  of  the  preterite 
gives  the  third  persons  singular  and  plural. 

'Cf.  180(3). 

2  This  latter  is  necessary  only  with  verbs  which  contract  the 
future  but  leave  the  infinitive  uncontracted.  Otherwise  the  future 
may  be  formed  from  the  infinitive. 

3  Except  in  the  verbs  andare,  avere,  dare,  fare,  sapere,  and  stare. 


IRRKOULAR   VKRBS.  121 


Other  Irregularities  of  Certain  Verbs. 

180.  §ssere    is,   as    before    noted,   entirely  irregular, 
and  must  be  considered  as  a  case  apart  (cf.  74). 
It  must  further  be  remarked  that : 

(1)  Dire  (for  dicere)  and  fare  (for  facere)  have  in 
the  second  person  plural  of  the  present  indicative  dite 
and  fate,1  and  dare,  stare,  have  date,  state. 

(2)  Dare,  fare,  stare,  form  in  the  future  and  condi- 
tional dar9,  dar§i;  farp,  far§i;  star§,  star§i.  This  is 
explained  by  the  fact  that  these  verbs  are  only  appar- 
ently, not  really,  of  the  first  conjugation.2 

The  ordinarily  regular  persons  of  the  preterite  and 
the  whole  of  the  imperfect  subjunctive  are  also  slightly 
irregular  in  dare  and  stare,  the  a  changing  to  e :  desti, 
"thou  gavest",  demmo,  "we  gave",  dessi,  'I  might 
give",  etc.;    also  stesti,  stemmo,  steste,  stessi,  etc. 

(3)  The  imperative,  which  ordinarily  follows  the 
present  indicative,  is  in  the  verbs  avere,  sapere,  and 
volere  like  the  present  subjunctive:  abbi,  abbiate; 
sappi,  sappiate;   vogli,  vogliate. 

Verbs  whose  stem  ends  in  1,  n,  or  r  frequently  drop 
the  final  i  of  the  singular  imperative : 

Pon !     Put  it  down ! 
,      Vie,n  qua!     Come  here! 

An  dare,  dare,  dire,  fare,  and  stare  also  drop  this  i — 
va',  da\  di',  fa',  sta\ 

(4)  Most  compound  verbs  follow  the  irregularities 
of  their  primary.     Those  that  differ  from  it  in  any  way 


1  Cf.  French  dites,  faites. 

2  Cf .  the  Latin  forms. 


122  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

are  given  special  mention  (cf .  Table  of  Irregular  Verbs, 
fare,  stare,  etc.). 

Impersonal  Verbs.     Defective  Verbs. 

181.  A  defective  verb  is  one  only  certain  forms  of 
which  exist.1  An  impersonal  verb  is  one  used  only 
in  the  third  person  singular.  Even  this  form  has  no 
real  subject  (although  gli  is  sometimes  the  apparent 
subject;  cf.  86,  foot-note  3,  and  94),  since  the  verb 
precludes  all  idea  of  any  person  or  thing  producing  or 
receiving  the  action  which  it  denotes.  Impersonal 
verbs  are  either  essentially  so  or  occasionally  so  used. 
Verbs  essentially  impersonal  are:  pigvere,  "to  rain"; 
avvenire,  "to  happen";  bisognare,  "  to  be  necessary", 
etc. 

Verbs  often  used  impersonally  are:  convenire,  "to 
be  fitting";  parere,  "to  appear";  bastare,  "to  be 
enough",  etc.;  also  §ssere  and  fare: 

Piove?     No,  n§vica.     Is  it  raining?     No,  it  is  snowing. 

Faceva  caldo  i§ri  e  tonava  molto.  It  was  warm  yester- 
day and  it  thundered  a  great  deal. 

Le  piace  questo  po§ma?     Do  you  like  this  poem? 

Punto.  Pare  che  V  autore  sia  uno  stupido.  Not  at  all. 
It  seems  as  though  the  author  were  a  blockhead. 

|)  meglio  cosi.     It  is  better  thus. 

(Exercises  XXXII,  XXXIII,  and  XXXIV.) 
1  The  defective  verbs  are  included  in  the  alphabetical  list,  p.  198. 


* 


PREPOSITIONS.     DEPENDENT  INFINITIVES.         123 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

PREPOSITIONS.     DEPENDENT  INFINITIVES. 

182.  There  are  in  Italian  simple  and  compound  prep- 
ositions.1 The  latter  may  also  be  called  prepositional 
locutions.  Many  words  are  sometimes  prepositions, 
sometimes  adverbs.2 

Simple  prepositions  (i.e.,  such  as  are  never  followed 
by  another  preposition)  are : 

a,  ad,3  to,  at.  di,  of,  from. 

con,4  with.  in,4  in. 

da,  from.  per,4  for,  through. 

(a)  To  these  might  be  added : 

durante,  during.  malgrado,  in  spite  of. 

ecce,tto,  except.  mediante,  by  means  of. 

giusta,  according  to.  salvo,  except. 

lungo,  along,  by.  secondo,  according  to,  as. 

These  words  (under  a)  are  not  all  pure  prepositions,  as 
are  a,  con,  etc.  Ecce,tto  is  sometimes  an  adjective,  giusta 
an  adverb,  etc. 

(b)  Su,5  "on",  "above",  only  rarely  takes  a  prepo- 
sition after  it.     Cf.  187  (6). 

183.  Other  prepositions  used  alone  except  when 
governing  a  personal  pronoun,  in  which  case  they  are 
followed  by  di,6  are: 

1  The  lists,  etc.,  in  this  chapter  are  intended  for  reference  only. 

2  All  prepositions  were  originally  adverbs. 

3  A  before  a  consonant,  ad  usually  before  a  vowel.     Cf.  36  (a) 

4  After  con,  in,  and  per  a  word  beginning  with  impure  s  usually 
prefixes  an  i:    Con  iscorno,  in  iscuola.     Cf.  36  (6). 

5  Sur  before  a  vowel.      Cf.  36  (a). 

6  Cf.  186. 


124  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR 

contro,1  against.  fra  (tra),  among,  between. 

dopo,  after.  senza,  without. 

verso,  toward. 

(a)  The  usage  of  di  before  a  personal  pronoun  is  not 
obligatory  with  fra  (tra)  and  verso : 

Lo  far$  dopo  pranzo.     I  shall  do  it  after  dinner. 

Sono  venuti  dopo  di  me.     They  came  after  me. 

|)  rimasto  senza  danaro.     He  was  without  money. 

Mia  figlia  non  pu§  andare  senza  di  me.  My  daughter 
cannot  go  without  me. 

II  loro  astio  era  tanto  acre  contro  di  lei  quanto  contro 
Raimondo.  Their  wrath  was  as  fierce  against  her  as 
against  Raymond. 

But:  Fra  noi  or  fra  di  noi,  "among  us";  Verso  lui  or 
v§rsodilui,  "toward  him". 

184.  The  following  prepositions  are  usually  followed 

by  a: 

accanto,2 )  ,      . .  attraverso,  across. 

,        \  beside,  near.  J      '  ...      .      . 

accgsto,    )  avanti     (davanti),    m   front 

addgsso,3  upon  (one's  back),         (of). 

about.  conforme,  according  (to). 

allato,  beside.  davanti,  )  ,     . 

_  ,.  .     .      ,.         -.  .    \  before. 

a  m§zzo  (111  mezzo),  m  the     dinanzi,  ) 

midst  (of).  dintorno  (intorno),  around. 

appetto,  facing,  opposite.  dirimpetto,  opposite. 

appresso,  near,  beside.  entro,  within  (of  time). 

attorno,  around.  fino,4  until,  as  far  as. 

^f.  186. 

2  Takes  also  di. 

3  Also  an  adverb.  Used  in  many  idioms  where  it  cannot  be  trans- 
lated, as:   Ha  f§bbre  addpsso,  "he  has  fever". 

4  Used  also  with  da  and  with  in:  Andrg  fino  a  Fir^nze,  "he  will 
go  as  far  as  Florence";  Non  1'  ho  visto  fino  da  i§ri,  "I  have  not 
seen  him  since  yesterday";  Vado  fino  in  cima,  "I  am  going  to 
the  top". 


PREPOSITIONS.     DEPENDENT   INFINITIVES.  125 

innanzi,  before.         [around,  inquanto,        ) 
incirca     (or     circa),   about,  in  riguardo,    -  in  regard  (to). 
in  faccia,  opposite.  in  risp§tto,     ) 

in  fondo,  at  the  end,  bottom,  ras^nte,  close  (to,  by), 
in  the  midst.  vicino,  near  (by). 

(a)  Insi§me,  "together  ",  usually  takes  con,  occasionally  a. 

185.  The   following   prepositions   and    prepositional 
locutions  are  usually  followed  by  di : 

a  causa,      )  a   malgrado,  notwithstand- 
a  motivo,   >  on  account  (of).1  ing. 

a  ragione,  )  appi§,  at  the  foot  (of). 

al  di  la,   on  the  other  side  ad  onore,  in  honor  (of). 

(of).  ad  onta,  in  spite  (of). 

al  di  qua,  this  side  (of).  in  cambio,  in  exchange. 

a  dispetto,  in  spite  (of).  .  in  luogo,  \  instead  (of) 

a  favore,  in  the  favor  (of).  invece,     j 

a  fcjrza,  by  means  (of),  with  per  m§zzo,  by  means  (of). 

much.  prima,  before. 
fuqri or  alP  infugri,  outside  (of). 

186.  The  following  take  either  a  or  di,  di  preferably 
before  a  personal  pronoun2: 

contro  (contra),  against.  oltre,  beyond,  besides. 

dentro,  within.  pre,sso,  near,  close  by. 

di§tro,  behind.  sopra,  above. 

in  m§zzo,  in  the  midst.  sotto,  beneath. 

187.  The  following  take  da : 

di  la,  that  side.  di  qua,  this  side. 

(a)  The  following  take  da  or  di: 

giu,  down.  lontano,  )  r 

,        .        >  far. 
lungi,       ) 

(b)  Giu,   ''down'    and    su,   "up",  may  also  be  fol- 
owed  by  per,  especially  if  they  are  preceded  by  di : 

1  It  will  be  observed  that  many  of  these  take  "of"  in  English. 

2  Cf.  183. 


126  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

Correvano  giu  per  la  scesa.  They  were  running  down 
the  slope. 

Egli  ha  preso  di  su  per  la  collina.  He  has  taken  the  up- 
hill road. 

1 88.  Prepositions  regularly  precede  the  word  gov- 
erned. The  simple  prepositions  are  usually  repeated 
before  each  of  several  substantives  governed1: 

II  padre  di  Giovanni  e  di  Giuseppe.  The  father  of  John 
and  Joseph. 

Carico  d*  anni  e  dJ  onori.    Loaded  with  years  and  honors. 

Idiomatic    Distinctions. 

189.  The  usage  and  meaning  of  prepositions  is  in 
all  languages  most  idiomatic.  It  can  be  thoroughly 
learned  only  by  careful  observation  and  long  practice. 
The  following  paragraphs  show  different  renderings  for 
the  commoner  English  prepositions. 

190.  About. 

(1)  In  the  sense  of  "around"  =  attorn o  a,  intorno  a, 
dintorno  a: 

Andava  solo  attorno  alia  chi§sa.  He  went  alone  about 
the  church. 

(2)  In  the  sense  of  "concerning"  =  di,  a: 
Parlavamo  di  lui.      We  were  talking  about  him. 
A  che  C9sa  pensa?     What  are  you  thinking  about  ? 

(3)  In  the  sense  of  '  approximately  "=  circa,  pr§sso 
a  pQco,  su,  in  su,  da: 

V*  §'rano  circa  due  ce,nto  ugmini.  There  were  about  two 
hundred  men. 

Che  ora  §?  Sono  le  undid  pr^sso  a  poco.  What  time  is 
it?     About  eleven. 

1  Cf.  46. 


PREPOSITIONS.     DEPENDENT   INFINITIVES.  127 

Verra  sul  fare  del  giorno.  He  will  come  about  day- 
break. 

Aveva  in  tasca  da  ottoc§nto  lire.  He  had  about  eight 
hundred  lire  in  his  pocket. 

191.  After. 

(1)  Denoting  place  and  time  =  dopo,  dopo  di: 
Uno  dopo  Paltro.     One  after  the  other. 

Dopo  tre  o,re.     After  three  hours. 

Chi  verra  dopo  di  me?     Who  will  come  after  me? 

Dopo  di  aver  esitato  lungamente — Che  hai?  domandg. 
After  having  hesitated  a  long  time  he  asked:  What  is 
wrong  with  you? 

(2)  In  the  sense  of  "according  to"  =a,  secondo: 
Alia  mo, da  di  Francia.     After  the  French  fashion. 
Secondo  l'uso  ordinario.     After  the  ordinary  custom. 

(3)  Unclassified: 

Di  giorno  in  giorno.     Day  after  day. 
In  somma  (in  fine).     After  all. 

192.  At. 

(1)  Denoting  time  =  a,  less  often  in: 
Ven*9  alle  die,ci.     I  shall  come  at  ten  o'clock. 
Alia  fine !     At  last ! 

5  m9rto  in  eta  di  venti  anni.  He  died  at  the  age  of 
twenty. 

(2)  Denoting  place  =  a,  in: 

A  (or  in)  casa  ngstra.     At  our  house. 
La  figtta  §  in  mare.     The  fleet  is  at  sea. 

(3)  In  the  sense  of  "at  the  house  of  "  =da: 

Sta  dalla  Signora  Stardi.  He  is  living  (or  staying)  at 
the  house  of  Mrs.  S. 

(4)  Unclassified : 

A  ragione  di  die,ci  per  ce,nto.     At  the  rate  of  ten  per  cent. 
Ci  va  dell*  onor  mio.     My  honor  is  at  stake. 


128  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

193.  Because  of. 

=  a  causa  di,  per  motivo  di: 
A  causa  della  sua  stanchezza.     Because  of  her  fatigue. 

194.  Before. 

(1)  Denoting  time  =  prima  di,  innanzi  (a),  di- 
nanzi  a: 

Parti  prima  di  me.     He  left  before  me. 

Innanzi  quel  tempo,  or  innanzi  a  quel  tempo.  Before 
that  time. 

Dinanzi  a  me  non  fur  cgse  create.  Before  me  was  noth- 
ing created. 

(2)  Denoting  place  =  davanti,  dinanzi: 

Davanti  {or  dinanzi)  al  giudice.  Before  the  judge,  in 
the  presence  of  the  judge. 

195.  By. 

(1)  Denoting  the  agent  after  a  passive  =  da: 

Lo  scolare  venne  punito  dal  maestro.     The  pupil  was  pun- 
ished by  the  teacher, 
(a)  Or  descriptive  =  di : 
Fu  ferito  di  una  spada.     He  was  wounded  by  a  sword. 

(2)  Denoting  way,  means,  etc.  =per: 
|)  venuta  per  la  posta.  It  came  by  post. 
Viaggia  per  te,rra.     He  is  traveling  by  land. 

Lo  afferr^  pel  vestito.     He  seized  him  by  his  clothes. 

(3)  Denot'ng  measure  =  di,  su: 

Piu  grande  di  due  pie,di.     Bigger  by  two  feet. 
Due  metri  su  quattro.     Two  meters  by  four. 

(4)  Denoting  manner  =  da : 

L'  ho  fatto  da  me.     I  did  it  by  myself. 

(5)  In  the  sense  of  '"beside"  =accanto  a: 
|)ra  seduto  accanto  a  lui.     I  was  sitting  beside  him. 

(6)  Unclassified: 
Di  giorno  e  di  notte.     By  day  and  by  night. 


PREPOSITIONS.     DEPENDENT   INFINITIVES.         129 

Lo  conosco  di  vista.     I  know  him  by  sight. 
A  due  per  vglta.     Two  by  two. 
Imparatelo  a  mente.     Learn  it  by  heart. 
Mugiono  a  migliaia.     They  are  dying  by  thousands. 
La  riconosco  al  color  dei  capelli.     I  know  her  by  the  color 
of  her  hair. 

196.  For. 

(1)  In  the  sense  of  "instead  of",  "on  account  of"  = 
per: 

L'  hQ  fatto  per  l§i.     I  did  it  for  you. 
L'  ho,  preso  per  suo  frate.Ho.      I  took  him  for  his  brother. 
IJccone  uno  per  voi.     Here  is  one  for  you. 
Bisogna  partire  per  Pisa.     We  must  start  for  Pisa. 
I  mi§i  consigli  li  serbo  per  me.     I  keep  my  own  counsel, 
I  keep  my  opinions  to  myself. 

(2)  Denoting  duration  of  past  time  =  da: 

Dimora  a  Roma  da  molti  anni.  He  has  been  living  in 
Rome  for  many  years. 

Li  cercava  da  tre  mesi.  He  has  been  looking  for  them 
for  three  months. 

(3)  Denoting  duration  of  present  time  =  per,  durante 
— or  " for"  is  often  not  rendered  at  all  in  Italian : 

Gemmati  §ra  andato  a  Pistoia  per  un  paio  di  giorni.    G. 
had  gone  to  Pistoia  for  a  couple  of  days. 
Durante  s§i  anni.     For  six  years. 
Restera  quattro  mesi.     He  will  remain  for  four  months. 

197.  From. 

(1)  Denoting  separation  =  da,  di1:  ' 
V§ngo  da  Parigi.     I  come  from  Paris. 

Partii  subito  di  casa.     I  left  home  at  once. 

(2)  Denoting  the  time  from  which  =  fin  da: 


1  The   separation  is  more   forcibly   expressed  by  da.     Cf.    213, 
Remark  2. 


130  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Fin  da  quel  momento  non  ne  parlg  piu.     From  that  mo- 
ment he  spoke  no  more  of  it. 
(3)   Denoting  cause  =di: 
Soffre  di  nevralgia.     She  is  suffering  from  neuralgia. 

198.  In,  into. 

(1)  Denoting  time  or  place  =  in: 

*    Avenne  in  marzo.     It  happened  in  March. 

5  andato  in  campagna.     He  has  gone  into  the  country. 
Mettetevelo  in  tasca.     Put  it  in  your  pocket. 

(2)  In  the  sense  of  "within"  in  speaking  of  time  = 

fra: 

Verranno  fra  due  giorni.     They  will  come  in  two  days. 

(3)  Denoting  place  after  a  superlative,  also  the  time 
of  day  (morning,  afternoon,  etc.)  =di: 

|)  il  piu  b§l  paese  del  mondo.  It  is  the  most  beautiful 
country  in  the  world. 

IJrano  le  tre  del  dopopranzo.  It  was  three  in  the  after- 
noon. 

(4)  In  description  =  di : 

IJrano  vestite  di  bianco.     They  were  dressed  in  white. 

(5)  Unclassified: 

|)  a  casa?     Is  he  in? 
Avanti!     Come  in! 

]Jra  ci§co  da  un  (Jcchio.     He  was  blind  in  one  eye. 
Stava    colla    spada    alia   mano.     He    stood    sword    in 
hand. 

199.  Of. 
(i)=di: 

Alcuni  di  loro  sono  degP  ingrati.  Some  of  them  are  un- 
grateful. 

|)  un  ugmo  d*  ingegno.     He  is  a  man  of  talent. 

(2)  Unclassified: 

II  cugre  mi  batteva  come  ad  un  ragazzo  di  quindici 
anni.     My  heart  beat  like  that  of  a  lad  of  fifteen. 


PREPOSITIONS.     DEPENDENT   INFINITIVES.         131 

200.  On. 

(1)  =su    sur  before  a  vowel),  sopra  fsovra)1: 

II  quaderno  §  sulla  tavola.     |)  sur  un  altro  quaderno. 

(2)  Unclass  fled : 

Alia  d§stra.     On  the  right. 
Suona  il  violino.     He  plays  (on)  the  violin. 
II  pranzo  §  in  tavola.     Dinner  is  on  the  table. 
Tutti  gli  Qcchi  §ran  fissi  in  lui.     All  eyes  were  fixed  on  him. 
Vive  di  pane.     He  lives  on  bread. 
In  punto  di  pi§di.     On  tiptoe. 

II  progr§sso  e  la  verita.  sono  dalla  parte  ngstra.  Progress 
and  truth  are  on  our  side. 

201.  Out  of. 

(1)  =di: 

Toglietevelo  di  t§sta.     Get  it  out  of  your  head. 

(2)  =da2: 

B§vo  da  una  tazza.     I  am  drinking  out  of  a  cup. 

(3)  In  the  sense  of  ''no  longer  of"  ^futjri  di: 
Quello  §  fuQri  dell'  uso.     That  is  out  of  use,  obsolete. 

202.  Through. 

(1)  Denoting  passage  =  per,  a  trav§rso : 

Se  passa  per  Roma  faccia  una  visita  alia  mia  cognata.  If 
you  pass  through  Rome  pay  my  sister-in-law  a  visit. 

Una  palla  ha  passato  a  trav§rso  il  co,rpo.  A  ball  has 
passed  through  the  body. 

]Jra  ritornato  per  le  scorciatoie.  He  had  come  back 
through  (by)  the  short  cuts. 

(2)  In  the  sense  of  ''because  of"  =per: 

LJ  ho,  fatto  per  trascuranza.  I  did  it  through  careless- 
ness. 

Questa  politica  riusci  per  la  profonda  necessita  di  riposo 
sentita  da  tutta  V  Eurgpa.  This  political  policy  succeeded 
on  account  of  the  profound  need  of  rest  felt  by  all  Europe. 
1  Sopra  also="over".  2  Cf .  213,  Remark  2. 


132  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

203.  Till,  until. 
=  fino  a,  sino  a: 

Vi  star§  fino  a  domani  alia  sera.     I  shall  stay  there  until 
to-morrow  evening. 

204.  To. 

(1)  Denoting  the  indirect  object  =  a    (ad    before  a 
vowel) : 

L'  I19  dato  ad  un  mio  amico.     I  gave  it  to  a  friend. 

(2)  Denoting  the  end  of  motion  often  =  in : 

Sono  andati  in1  Francia.     They  have  gone  to  France. 
|)  caduto  in  t§rra.     It  has  fallen  to  the  ground. 

(3)  In  the  sense  of  "to  the  house  of "  or  to  a  person 
=  da: 

Sono  andati  dal  Signor  Bardi.     They  have  gone  to  Mr.B.'s. 

(4)  In  the  sense  of  "towards"  =ve,rso: 

Con  amore  verso  Dio  e  vgrso  gli  ugmini.     With  love  to 
God  and  man. 

(5)  In  the  sense  of  " within"  =fra: 
Dissi  fra  me.     I  said  to  myself. 

205.  Towards. 

= verso.     Cf.  204  (4). 

206.  Under,  underneath. 
= sotto,  di  sotto: 

|)  sotto  la  tavola.     Guardate  sotto  di  voi.     Cf.  186. 

207.  With. 

(1)  In  the  sense  of  "along  with "=  con  or    insifme 
con2: 

Vanno   con  noi,  or  Vanno  insie,me  con  noi.2     They  are 
going  with  us. 

( 2 )  Denoting  instrumentality  =  con : 

1  In  is  so  used  before  the  name  of  a  country,  never  before  that 
of  a  city:    Sono  andati  a  Parigi. 

2  Or  insieme  a.     Cf.  184  (a). 


PREPOSITIONS.     DEPENDENT  INFINITIVES.         133 

L'  ha  fatto  con  una  semplice  matita.     He  did  it  with  an 

ordinary  pencil. 

(3)  Descriptive  =  a,  da,  di,  or  con: 

L'  uo,mo  ai  (dai,  coi)  capelli  canuti.     The  gray-haired  man. 
Col  suo  pugnale  del  manico  b§llo.      With  his  dagger  with 
the  beautiful  handle. 

Cammina  a  capo  chino.     He  walks  with  bowed  head. 

(4)  In  the  sense  of   'at  the  house  of",  etc.  =da: 
Dimorava  molti  anni  da  1  noi.     He  lived  many  years  with 

us. 

(5)  "With"  of  specification  =  di : 

Fu  punito  di  mgrte.     He  was  punished  with  death. 

(6)  In  the  sense  of  "from",  "on  account  of",  and 
after  a  number  of  verbs  and  adjectives  =di: 

Piangeva  di  rabbia.     She  was  weeping  with  rage. 
§  dotato  di  molti  talenti.     He    is    endowed    with    many 
talents. 

(7)  Unclassified: 

Che  fece  delle  f^rbici?     What    did    she    do    with    the 
scissors  ? 

208.  Within. 

(1)  In  the  sense  of   'inside  of"  =  dentro  (di,  a) : 
Dentro  di  me.     Within  me. 

■  ■ 

Dentro  al  mio  cuo,re.     Within  my  heart. 

( 2 )  In  the  sense  of  ' ' between " ,  "in  the  course  of  "  = 
fra  (tra),  dentro: 

Fra2  (or  dentro  a)  queste  mura.     Within  these  walls. 
Fra  tre  giorni.     Within  three  days. 

209.  Without. 

(1)  In  the  sense  of  "outside  of"  =fu9ri  di: 
Fugri  delle  mura.     Without  the  walls. 

(2)  Denoting  deprivation  =senza: 

*Cf.  213.  »Cf.  204  (5). 


134  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Senza  l'assistenza  di  nessuno.  Without  the  assistance  of 
anybody. 

Use  of  a,  di,  and  da. 

210.  Since  a,  di,  and  da  are  the  prepositions  oftenest 
used,  and  since  they  are  often  used  where  they  have  in 
English  no  equivalent,  special  instruction  concerning 
their  use  is  necessary. 

211.  A  is  used  in  general  to  express  an  idea  of  direc- 
tion towards,  often  where  there  is  no  such  notion  in 
English.     It  is  used: 

(i)  To  indicate  the  indirect  object, — that  to  or  for 
which  the  action  is  performed: 
Datemelo  a  me.     Give  it  to  me. 
Fammi  questo  favore  a  me.     Do  me  this  favor. 

(2)  Before  an  infinitive  after  verbs  of  motion,  also 
after  verbs  of  accustoming,  attaining,  beginning,  com- 
pelling, continuing,  hastening,  helping,  learning,  pre- 
paring, and  teaching.  All  these  verbs  express  direc- 
tion towards  some  goal.  A  in  this  case  renders  English 
"to"  or  "and": 

Andiamo  a  vederlo.     Let  us  go  and  see  him. 

M'  §ra  abituato  ad  andarvi.  I  was  in  the  habit  of  going 
there. 

Cominciarono  a  parlarne.     They  began  to  speak  of  it. 

Seguitava  a  seccarmi.     He  went  on  boring  me. 

I  piccini  imparavano  a  scrivere.  The  children  were 
learning  to  write. 

Insegno  a  mio  frat§llo  a  l§'ggere.  I  am  teaching  my 
brother  to  read. 

(3)  In  general  after  verbs  which  imply  direction 
towards,  as: 

Avvicinati  a  me.     Come  near  me. 


PREPOSITIONS.     DEPENDENT   INFINITIVES.         135 


Si  appgggia  al  muro.     He  is  leaning  against  the  wall 
And  especially  after  the  verbs: 

abituarsi,  to  accustom  one's     parlare,  to  speak. 

self  (to). 
darsi,   to  become    addicted 

(to). 
domandare,  to  ask,  demand 

of  a  person,     [cards,  etc.). 
giuocare,    to    play    (games, 

Domandi  al  padrone.     Ask  the  master. 

Parliamo  a  quell'  ugmo.     Let  us  speak  to  that  man. 

Pensate  a  noi.     Think  of  us. 

Oggi  tocca  a  loro.     It  is  their  turn  to-day. 

(4)  Before  the  following  adjectives  (which,  it  will 
be  observed,  express  also  in  English  the  relation  "to" 
or  "for"): 


pensare,1  to  think  of  (a  per- 
son). 

riflgttere,  to  reflect. 

sopravvivere,  to  outlive. 

toccare,1  to  concern,  to  fall 
to  the  lot  of. 


attgnto,  attentive. 
atto,  apt,  fit. 
awezzo,  accustomed. 
bugno     (in     the      sense     of 

"able".    Cf.  82,  Remark). 
caro,  dear. 

conforme,  like,  conformable. 
contrario,  contrary,  inimical. 
conveniente,         convenient, 

suitable.  [ing. 

corrispondente,    correspond- 
dannoso,  prejudicial. 
disposto,  disposed. 
eguale,  equal. 
fedele,  faithful. 
grato,  pleasing. 


harmful. 


inclinato,  inclined. 
inferiore,  inferior. 
necessario,  necessary. 
nocevole,  ) 
nocivo,      ) 
ngto,  known. 
odioso,  hateful. 
pericoloso,  dangerous. 
preparato,  prepared. 
pronto,  ready. 

proporzionato,  proportioned. 
prgprio,  proper,  peculiar. 
simile,  similar. 
superiore,  superior. 
utile,  useful. 
vicino,  near. 


1  Only  when  the  verb  has  this  sense. 


136  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

(5)  After  a  noun  followed  by  another  noun  descrip- 
tive of  or  limiting  the  first  (but  not  indicative  of 
material,  in  which  case  di  is  used,  212,  or  purpose, 
which  is  expressed  by  da,  213). 

Usually  the  two  nouns  form  in  English  a  compound 
noun: 

Una  barca  a  vela.     A  sailboat. 

■ 

Una  scala  a  lumaca.     A  winding  stairway. 
Uno  sgab§llo  a  tre  pi§di.     A  three-legged  stool. 
Una  macchina  a  vapore.     A  steam-engine. 

(6)  In  a  number  of  idioms,  such  as: 
L§ggere  ad  alta  voce.     To  read  aloud. 
Averselo  a  male.     To  take  a  thing  ill. 
A  prima  giunta.     At  first. 

Non  potere  a  meno  di.     Not  to  be  able  to  help. 

212.  Di  expresses  in  general  a  sense  of  possession. 
It  is  used  to  indicate  the  person  possessing,  also  some 
quality  possessed,  as  the  material  of  which  an  article 
is  made,  its  origin,  nationality,  or  other  character- 
istic : 

La  casa  del  mio  amico.     My  friend's  house. 

Un  an§llo  d*  gro.     A  gold  ring  (  =  ring  of  gold). 

Vino  di  Sciampagna.  Champagne  (  =  wine  from  Cham- 
pagne). 

L'  ambasciatore  di  Svizzera.     The  Swiss  ambassador. 

(a)  The  sense  of  description,  of  a  quality  possessed, 
is  also  expressed  in  many  cases  where  the  first  noun  is 
modified  by  a  second : 

Un  chilogramma  di  burro.     A  kilogram  of  butter. 

Una  tazza  di  t|.     A  cup  of  tea. 

Un  bambino  di  cinque  anni.     A  child  of  five  years. 

La  strada  di  Roma.     The  road  to  Rome. 

Un  maestro  di  scugla.     A  schoolmaster. 


PREPOSITIONS.     DEPENDENT   INFINITIVES. 


137 


Male  di  te,sta.     Headache. 

Col  suo  pugnale  del  manico  be,llo.     With  his  dagger  with 
the  beautiful  handle. 
It  is  further  used : 

(1)  Before  an  infinitive  after  all  verbs  except  those 
specified  under  211  (2)  and  214: 

Cerc9  di  richiamare  gV  Italiani  all'  indipende,nza.  He 
sought  to  recall  the  Italians  to  a  state  of  independence. 

Sapeva  che  suo  padre  smetteva  di  scrivere  a  mezzan^tte. 
He  knew  that  his  father  stopped  writing  at  midnight. 

(a)   In  some  cases  the  di  may  be  omitted : 

Non  sapete,  o  fingete  non  saper  in  quale  stato  voi  n.i  las- 
ciate.     C§rto,  fingo  di  non   saperlo,   ma   so,.1 

(2)  After  the  following  verbs  (and  others  less  com- 
mon) : 


abbisognare,     j  to  have 

avere  bisogno,  )  need  (of). 

abbondare,  to  abound  (in). 

abusare,  to  abuse,  make  an 
ill  use  (of). 

burlarsi,  to  make  fun  (of). 

congratularsi,  to  congratu- 
late (one  on  something). 

contentarsi,  to  content  one's 
self  (with). 

divertirsi,  to  amuse  one's 
self  (with). 

dubitare,  to  doubt  (of). 

fidarsi,  to  trust,  have  confi- 
dence (in). 

impadronirsi,  to  take  pos- 
session (of). 


take 


upon 


incaricarsi,    to 

one's  self. 
informarsi,  to  inform  one's 

self  (of). 
int§ndersi,     to    understand, 

have  skill  (in). 
lagnarsi,       )  to       complain 
lamentarsi,  }      (of). 
maravigliarsi,     to      wonder 

(at). 
occuparsi,   to   occupy   one's 

self  (with). 
pentirsi,  to  repent  (of). 
profittare,  to  profit  (by). 
ricordarsi,  to  remember. 
ridere,  to  laugh  (at). 
ridersi,  to  make  fun  (of). 


1  Goldoni,  II  Vero  Amico,  11,3. 


138  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

(3)  After  many  adjectives,  such  as: 

abbondante,  abundant,  rich  meritevole,  deserving. 

(in).  pago,  contented  (with). 

ammalato,  ill.  pi§no,  full  (of). 

avido,  greedy,   desirous  (of),  ptjvero,  poor  (in). 

capace,1  capable  (of).  •  ricco,  rich  (in). 

certo,1  certain  (of).  soddisfatto,  satisfied  (with). 

contento,  contented  (with).  vestito,  clothed  (with). 

degno,  worthy  (of).  vugto,  empty. 
fecondo,  fruitful.  etc. 

(4)  To  express  the  partitive  sense  (cf .  47  and  48) : 
Ho  dei  fiori.     I  have  some  flowers. 

■  • 

(5)  In  comparisons  (cf.  126) : 

Mi  piace  questo  vino  piu  dell'  altro.  I  like  this  wine  bet- 
ter than  the  other. 

Se  n'  and§,  facendo  a  d<jn  Abbondio  un  inclino  men  pro- 
fondo  del  s^lito.  He  went  away,  making  Don  A.  a  less  pro- 
found bow  than  usual. 

(6)  Before  a  noun  in  apposition: 

Quel  benedett*  uomo  del  signor  curato!  That  blessed 
curate ! 

(7)  In  many  adverbial  expressions,  such  as: 

Di  ngtte.      At  night.  Dire   di   si,   di  119.      To  say 

Di    primavera.      In  Spring-         yes,  no. 
Di  vista.     By  sight,     [time.  etc. 

213.  Da  denotes  (a)  the  agency  by  which.  It  also 
expresses  in  general  (b)  a  sense  of  removal,  of  sepa- 
ration from: 

(a)  |)  una  macchina  fatta  da  lui.  It  is  a  machine  made 
by  him. 

Essa  §  lodata  da  tutti.     She  is  praised  by  every  one. 

1  Also  incapace,  incejrto. 


PREPOSITIONS.     DEPENDENT   INFINITIVES.         139 

(b)  Sono  partiti  i§ri  da  Roma.  They  left  Rome  yester- 
day. 

Essendo  lontano  dalla  patria.  Being  far  from  my  native 
land. 

Remarks,  (i)  It  is  evident  that  da  is  frequently  used 
(a)  with  passive  verbs;  (b)  with  verbs  denoting  departure, 
or  separation  (also  with  adjectives  denoting  deprivation 
and  the  like;  cf.  (/)  below). 

(2)  There  are  many  cases  in  which  either  da  or  di  may 
be  used.  There  is,  however,  a  shade  of  difference.  In 
Sono  partito  di  Roma,  Rome  is  thought  of  principally  as 
the  point  of  departure,  whereas  in  Sono  partito  da  Roma, 
more  stress  is  laid  upon  the  fact  of  the  removal,  the  sepa- 
ration from  Rome.  There  are  also  cases  where  either  di, 
da,  or  a  may  be  used.1 

Da  is  further  used : 

(c)  To  denote  motion  towards  or  rest  by  a  person2: 
V^glio  andare  da  mio  ngnno.     I  want  to  go  to  my  grand- 
father's. 

Sta  da  noi.     He  is  stopping  at  our  house. 

(d)  To  express  adaptation,  destination,  fitness,  etc. : 
Una  camera  da  letto.     A  bedroom. 

Carta  da  scrivere.     Writing-paper. 

Una  ragazza  da  maritare.  A  girl  of  marriageable  age, 
a  marriageable  girl. 

Una  tazza  da  t§.  A  tea-cup.  (Cf.  tazza  di  t§,  "  cup  of 
tea"). 

If  uo,mo  da  farlo.  He  is  a  man  capable  of  doing  it,  he 
is  the  man  to  do  it. 

Dammi  da  bere.     Give  me  something  to  drink. 

(e)  Also  in  a  peculiar  way,  where  it  can  best  be  ren- 
dered into  English  by  "as  a",  "like  a"3: 

Parlate  da  scio,cco.     You  are  talking  like  a  fool. 

'  Cf .  207  (3)  •  2  Cf .  192  (3) ,  and  207  (4)  •  3  Cf.  49  (3)  • 


140  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Ha  veduto  la  Duse  da  Camelia?     Have  you  seen  Duse  as 

Camille  ? 

Egli  ti  fara  da  padre.     He  will  be  a  father  to  you. 

(/)  With  adjectives  of  separation,  deprivation,  and 
the  like,  as1: 

ali§no,  foreign,  averse.  indipendente,  independent. 

distante,  distant.  lontano,  far,  remote. 

diverso,  different. 

Dependent  Infinitives. 

214.  The  following  verbs  rule  a  dependent  infinitive 
directly,  i.e.,  English  "to"  is  not  to  be  translated: 

ardire,  to  dare.  parere,  to  appear,  seem. 

bastare,  to  suffice.  occorrere,  to  be  necessary. 

bisognare,  to  need.  osare,  to  dare. 

convenire,  to  be  suitable.  potere,  to  be  able. 

desiderare,  to  desire.  sapere,  to  know. 

dovere,  to  owe,  must,  ought,  sentire,  to  feel,  hear. 

§'ssere  d*  ugpo,   )  to  be  need-  vedere,  to  see. 

§ssere  mesti§ri,  )       ful.  volere,  to  wish. 

lasciare,  to  let,  allow.  udire,  to  hear.2 

It  will  be  observed  that  most  of  these  verbs  might 
be  called  modal  auxiliaries  in  the  wider  sense  of  the 
term. 

Bisogna  farlo  subito.  It  must  be  done  at  once,  it  is 
necessary  to  do  it  at  once. 

N9,  non  conviene  farlo.     No,  it  is  not  proper  to  do  it. 

Desidera  partire  ade^sso?     Do  you  desire  to  go  now? 

N9,  vcjglio  partire  alia  sera.  No,  I  want  to  go  in  the 
evening. 

1  Cf.  (b)  above. 

2Bramare,  "to  long  for",  and  dubitare,  "to  doubt",  also  some- 
times rule  the  infinitive  directly. 


PREPOSITIONS.     DEPENDENT   INFINITIVES.  141 

I  bambini  non  sanno  ancora  discorrere.  The  children 
cannot  yet  talk. 

S119I  venire  alle  s§i.     He  usually  comes  at  six. 

Avremmo  dovuto  saperlo.     We  ought  to  have  known  it. 

215.  After  verbs  of  motion  and  those  others  men- 
tioned under  211  (2),  English  "to"  before  an  infinitive 
is  to  be  rendered  by  a,  otherwise  by  di  (212  (1)),  except: 

(a)  "to"  in  the  sense  of  "in  order  to",  i.e.,  denot- 
ing purpose,  which  =  per1; 

(b)  "to"  in  the  sense  of  "something  to",  also  "to' 
denoting  duty  or  necessity,  which  =  da2: 

D§vo  partire  subito  per  arrivare  a  t§mpo.  I  must  leave 
at  once  in  order  to  arrive  in  good  time. 

C  §rano  scale  da  scendere  e  salire,  lunghi  corridoi  da 
percorrere,  cortili  da  attraversare.  There  were  stairs  to 
be  descended  and  ascended,  long  corridors  to  be  passed 
through,  courtyards  to  be  crossed. 

V^ngano  tutti,  non  c'  §  da  temere!  Come,  all  of  you! 
There  is  nothing  to  be  afraid  of ! 

Aspettavamo  per  vedere  il  tramonto.  We  were  waiting 
to  see  the  sunset. 

Quello  che  ha  da  fare  §  cgsa  di  poco  tempo.  What  he 
has  to  do  is  an  affair  of  a  short  time. 

Non  m'  ha  da  pr^mere  la  mia  vita.  My  life  need  not  be 
a  burden  to  me. 

Quanti  conti  s'  ha  da  r^ndere !  How  many  accounts  must 
be  given ! 3 

Io  gli  dava  da  bere.     I  gave  him  something  to  drink. 

1  Stare  or  §ssere  per  =  "to  be  about  to  do  anything".       Cf.  81  (a). 
It  is  evident  that  after  a  verb  of  motion  either  a  or  per  may  often 

be  used. 

2  Cf .  avere  da  =  "  to  have  to  " ,  84  (b) . 

3  This  construction  is  often  best  translated  by  an  English  pas- 
sive. 


142  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Ha  qualche  095a  da  fare?       Si,  ho.   moltissimo  da  fare. 

Have  you  anything  to  do?     Yes,  I  have  a  great  deal  to  do. 

216.  A  preposition  placed  after  a  verb  often  modi- 
fies its  meaning: 

assistere,  to  aid;   assistere  a,  to  be  present  at. 

cercare,  to  seek;   cercare  di,  to  seek  after. 

credere,  to  believe;   credere  a,  to  believe  in  (a  person).1 

domandare,  to  ask;  domandare  a,  to  ask  of  (a  person); 
domandare  di,  to  ask  after  (a  person). 

giocare,  to  play;   giocare  a,  to  play  at  (a  game). 

pensare,  to  think;  pensare  a,  to  think  of  (a  person);  pen- 
sare  su,  to  reflect. 

toccare,  to  touch;  toccare  a,  to  be  the  turn  of,  etc. 

(Exercises  XXXV  and  XXXVI.) 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

CONJUNCTIONS,  MOODS  AND  TENSES. 

217.  Following  are  the  simple  conjunctions: 

anche,  also.2  0,  or  (0  . . .  0,  either . . .  or). 

che,  that.  ma,    )  , 

but. 


come,  as.  per  $, 

e,  and  (e  . . .  e,  both  . . .  and),  pure,  yet. 

ne,  neither  (ne . .  .n§,  neither  se,  if,  whether. 
..  .nor). 

2 18.  Following  are  the  principal  secondary  conjunc- 
tions, also  words  sometimes  conjunctions  and  some- 
times relative  adverbs  and  conjunctional  locutions: 

1  But  credere  in  Dio,  in  Cristo. 

2  Anche,  che,  also  nemmeno  and  neppure  elide  the  final  vowel 
before  e  and  i. 


CONJUNCTIONS,  MOODS   AND   TENSES. 


J43 


after,1  dopo  che  (dop  chfc), 
P9scia  che. 

although,  ancorche,  avvegna 
che,  benche,  non  stante 
che,  quantunque,  sebb§ne. 

as,2  siccome ;  as  ...  as,  cosi .  . . 
come,  quale  . . .  tale,  tanto 
... .quanto,  etc.    (Cf.  121.) 

the  more  so  as,  tanto  piu  che. 

as  for,  in  quanto  a. 

as  if,  come  se,  comecche, 
quasi. 

as  long  as,  tanto,  tantoche, 
fin  tanto. 

because,  perche,  perciocche. 

but  rather,  but  indeed, 
bensi. 

even,  anche,  anzi,  pure. 

even,  if,  anche  se,  ancorche, 
quando  anche. 

except,  salvo  che,  fuorche, 
ecc§tto  che  non. 

except  that,  se  non  che. 

for,   che. 

given  that,  granted  that, 
dato  che,  semprechfe. 

however,  per  quanto,  quan- 
tunque, tuttavia. 

if,  se,  quando. 


if  only,  soloche. 
incase,caso,incaso,casomai. 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that,  mal- 

grado  che. 
in  order  that,  accioche,  affin- 

che,  affine  di,  perche. 
nevertheless,        nondimeno, 
nulladimeno,  tuttavia,   ci^ 
non  ostante. 
nor. . .  either,  nemmeno,  nep- 

pure. 
notwithstanding   that,  non- 
ostante  che,  malgrado  che. 
on  condition  that,  a  condi- 

zione  che,  a  patto  che. 
or,  ovvero,  ossia. 
or  else,  ossia. 
provided  that,  purche. 
rather,  anzi,  anzi  che. 
rather  than,  piuttosto  che. 
since  (causal),  giacche,  poi- 

che. 
since  (temporal),  dacche. 
so,  and  so,  so  then,  adunque, 

dunque. 
so  that,  di  modo  che,  sicch^.3 
supposing  that,  posto    che, 

supposto  che. 
than,  che,  di.4 


1  The  English  equivalent  is  placed  first  to  facilitate  reference. 

2  For  "as"  =  "while",  "as"  ="since",  cf.  "while",  "since". 
In  other  cases  "as"  =" that  which":  Fece  quel  che  la  madre  le 
comand9.      She  did  as  her  mother  bade  her. 

3  Cf.  also  "in  order  that"  above. 

4  Cf.  126. 


144 


ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


until,  finche,  finche  non,  sino 

a  che,  infino  a. 
whence,  per  !o  che. 
whereas,  considerando  che. 
whether,  se,  sia,  sia  che. 
while,  whilst,  mentre  che. 
yet,  nulladimeno,pure,  perg. 


that  che;  that  is,  cio§. 
therefore,     dunque,     perci9, 

quindi. 
though,    benche,    ancorche, 

quantunque. 
unless,  a  meno  che,  a  meno 

7  ■  ■     *  ■ 

che  non,  ecettuato  che,  se 
non. 

m 

219.  The  following  are  sometimes  followed  by  the 
subjunctive,  sometimes  by  the  indicative  (cf.  233) : 
anche  se,  even  if.  onde,  wherefore. 

■  7  ■  * 

appena  che,  as  soon  as.  quando, )    r 

di  modo  che,  so  that.  se,  i 

dopoche,  after.  tantoche,  as  long  as. 

finche,  until.  tostoche,  as  soon  as. 

•  7  ■  * 

220.  The  following  are  always  followed  by  the  sub- 
junctive (cf.  232  (5)): 

accioche,  )  .         ,  ,       -      -  )  notwith- 

_     ,,     }•  m  order  that.  malgrado  che,  ,. 

arnnche,  V      >  standing 

'  . '        ,  . ,    ,  non  ostante  che,  I  ^ 

a  condizione  che,    provided  '    ;  that. 

that.  perche,  in  order  that. 

a  meno  che  non,  unless.  posto  che,  supposing  that. 

ancorche,  even  if.  prima  che,  before. 

a   patto    che,    on    condition  purche,  provided  that. 


that. 
avanti  che,  before. 
awegna  che,  )    „, 

bencS,        '    J"  alth0Ugh 
caso  (che),  in  case. 

come  se,  as  if. 

dato  che,  granted  that. 

eccetto  che  non,  unless. 

finche  non,  until. 


quandanche,  even  if. 
quantunque,  although. 
quasi,  as  if. 
sebbene,  although. 
sempreche,  provided. 
senza  che,  except. 
soloche,    if    only,    provided 

that. 
supposto  che,  supposing  that. 


MOODS  AND   TENSES.  145 

MOODS  AND  TENSES. 
The  Infinitive. 

221.  The  infinitive  is  a  verbal  noun.  As  a  noun  it 
may  be  accompanied  by  an  article  and  governed  by  a 
preposition,  and  as  a  verb  it  mav  at  the  same  time 
rule  an  object: 

II  l§'ggere  dei  buoni  libri  §  utile  alia  gioventu.  Reading 
good  books  is  useful  to  the  young. 

Mi  secca  ol  suo  ete,rno  chiacchierare.  She  bores  me  with 
her  ceaseless  chattering. 

II  non  aver  egli  risposto  mi  fece  dubitare.  His  not  hav- 
ing answered  made  me  feel  doubtful. 

(a)  The  infinitive  used  as  a  noun  is  usually  to  be 
rendered  in  English  by  the  present  participle.     Cf.  222. 

(b)  The  article  may  be  omitted  with  the  infinitive 
as  with  any  other  noun  (Cf.  45  (4)).  It  is  also  usually 
omitted  after  the  prepositions  di,  dopo  di,  invece  di, 
prima  di,  and  senza: 

Cominciare  §  mostrare,  a  pnjprio  rischio  e  pericolo,  una 
via  non  battuta  e  da  battersi.  To  begin  is  to  point  out,  at 
one's  own  risk  and  peril,  an  unbeaten  road,  a  road  that 
must  be  beaten. 

Scrive  invece  di  venire.     He  writes  instead  of  coming. 
c)  The  infinitive   after    the  words    che,   chi,   come, 
donde,   dove,     orms  with  them    one    substantive    con- 
cept,  which  may  then  be  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb, 
etc. : 

Non  so  dove  andare,  ne  che  fare.  I  do  not  know  where 
to  go  nor  what  to  do. 

(d)  In  the  same  way  an  infinitive  after  §  with  an 
adjective  or  adverb  forms  one  concept: 


146  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

5  meglio  non  dirlo.  It  is  better  not  to  say  it  (i.e.,  "not- 
to-say-it  is  better"). 

The  student  should  reason  out  the  cases  presented.  For 
instance : 

|)  piu  facile  criticare  che  far  meglio.  It  is  easier  to  crit- 
icise than  to  do  better  (i.e.,  criticism  is  easier  than  doing 
better).  Therefore  the  phrase  should  be  ats  above  and  not: 
|)  piu  facile  di  criticare  che  di  far  meglio. 

(e)  An  English  infinitive  is  often  to  be  rendered  in 
Italian  by  the  subjunctive.     Cf.  232  (1). 

The  Present  Participle. 

222.  Neither  the  present  participle  in  -ante,  -e,nte, 
nor  that  in  -ando,  -endo,  may  ever  be  used  as  a  noun.1 
The  English  present  participle  where  it  is  a  verbal 
noun  must  be  rendered  by  the  only  verbal  noun  exist- 
ing in  Italian,  i.e.,  by  the  infinitive  (cf.  above,  221 
and  (a)).  The  question  occurs  with  regard  0  every 
such  English  construction:  Is  the  participle  really  a 
verb  or  a  noun? 

Three  categories  may  be  distinguished : 

(1)  Where  the  participle  is  evidently  a  verb: 

I  saw  him  going  to  the  city  ( =  I  saw  him.  He  was  going 
to  the  city). 

In  this  case  the  corresponding  verbal  form,  i.e.,  the 
participle  in  -ando,  -endo,  is  used: 

V  hg  visto  andando  alia  citta.  (Or  L*  ho  visto  che  andava 
alia  citta.) 

(2)  Where  the  participle  is  apparently,  but  not 
really  and  necessarily,  a  noun.  In  this  case  it  is  in 
English   governed   by   a  preposition,  but   an  attempt 

x  Cf.  in  and  112.  The  -ante,  -ente  forms  where  not  adjectives 
become  nouns,  but  they  are  never  verbs  used  as  nouns. 


MOODS  AND   TENSES.  147 

to  render  the  thought  in  another  form  will  show  that 
the  preposition  is  not  absolutely  necessary: 

One  learns  by  teaching  (^Teaching  one  learns). 

In  such  cases,  where  the  preposition  may  be  omitted, 
although  the  omission  may  make  the  construction 
awkward,  the  Italian  participle  is  used  as  above  (i) : 

Inse  nando  s'  impara. 

(3)  Where  the  English  participle  is  necessarily  a 
noun,  i.e.,  where  it  is  accompanied  by  a  preposition 
necessary  to  the  sense: 

Before  leaving  he  gave  me  a  letter. 

He  went  away  without  speaking  to  me. 

I  am  in  the  habit  of  saying  what  I  think. 

Keep  him  front  breaking  his  neck. 

They  are  tired  of  so  much  traveling. 

In  this  case  the  Italian  infinitive,  usually  with  the 
definite  article,  is  to  be  employed1: 

Prima  di  partire  mi  di§de  una  l§ttera. 

Se  n*  and§  senza  parlarmi. 

Ho  P  abitudine  di  dire  lo  che  credo. 

Impeditelo  dal  rompersi  il  collo. 

Sono  stanchi  dal  tanto  viaggiare. 

There  are  of  course  cases  where  either  construction 
is  possible: 

ColP  insegnare  s*  impara. )  _       ,  „    . 

,      .  .  \  One  learns  (bv)  teaching. 

Insegnando  s'  imp  ra.       ) 

1/  appetito  vi§ne  nel  mangiare.  )  Appetite     comes     with 

L'  appetito  vie.ne  mangiando.     )       eating.2 

1  Cf .  above,  221   (a)  and  (6). 

2  But  never  Coll'  insegnando  s'  impara;  L'  appetito  vi§ne  nel  man- 
giando. 


148  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

The  Past  Participle. 

223.  The  English  past  participle  when  it  follows  a 
transitive,  especially  a  verb  of  perceiving,  also  g'ssere, 
fare,  lasciare,  is  to  be  rendered  by  the  Italian  infini- 
tive. An  English  passive  infinitive  is  also  rendered 
by  the  active  infinitive  after  lasciare  and  often   after 

the  preposit  on  da : 

L'  hg  sentito  dire.     I  have  heard  it  said. 

Lo  vidi  ammazzare.     I  saw  him  killed. 

Hg  fatto  fare  un  abito.     I  have  had  a  coat  made. 

|)  un  ugmo  da  temere.     He  is  a  man  to  be  feared. 

Non  si  lasciano  mai  vedere.  They  never  let  themselves 
be  seen. 

Che  cgsa  §  da  fare?     What  is  to  be  done  ? 

(a)  The  use  of  the  passive  is  avoided  1  in  many  other 
cases  in  Italian  by  using  the  infinitive : 

Credevo  gsser  severamente  ferito.  I  thought  I  was 
severely  wounded. 

224.  A  whole  protasis,  relative  clause,  or  the  like, 
is  often,  and  elegantly,  expressed  in  Italian  by  a  pres- 
ent participle,  a  past  participle,  or  an  infinitive: 

Essgndo  malata  mia  madre  non  pgsso  venire.  My  mother 
being  ill  (or:   Since  my  mother  is  ill)  I  cannot  come. 

Guardandolo  bgne,  ne  sargbbe  sicuro.  If  he  looked  at 
it  well  he  would  be  sure  of  the  matter. 

Disse  gsser  lui  ugmo  ricco.  He  said  that  he  was  a  rich 
man. 

Vedutagli  tale  disposizione,  un  fratgl  suo  lo  tglse  con  se 
a  bottega.  A  brother  of  his  who  had  seen  his  bent  took 
him  into  the  shop  with  him. 

Passata  questa  settamana,  non  m'  appagherg  piii  di  chiac- 

1  The  passive  is  much  less  frequent  in  Italian  than  in  English. 
Cf.  104  (a). 


MOODS  AND   TENSES.  t  + 

chiere.  Once  this  week  is  over  I  shall  no  longer  content 
myself  with  talk. 

Dette  che  §bbe  queste  parc-le  se  ne  and$.  As  soon  as  he 
had  said  these  words  he  went  away. 

A  vederlo  se  lo  credergbbe  un  mendicante.  From  his 
appearance  one  would  think  him  a  beggar. 

Mio  padre  diceva  §sser  difficile  salvar  un  U91110  che  non 
voleva  salvarsi  lui.  My  father  used  to  say  that  it  was 
hard  to  save  a  man  who  did  not  want  to  save  himself. 

Rendering  of  Past  Tenses  in  Italian. 

225.  An  action  represented  as  unfinished  and  still 
continuing  is  often  expressed  by  the  present  tense: 

Quant*  §  che  si§te  qui  ?     How  long  have  you  been  here  ? 

Sono  in  Italia  da  s§i  mesi.  I  have  been  in  Italy  about 
six  months. 

(a)  A  past  action  if  finished  in  the  past  is  more 
vividly  described  by  the  use  of  the  present  tense : 

Aspettavo  un'  ora  piu  0  meno,  eppoi  §ccolo  che  viene.  I 
waited  an  hour,  more  or  less,  and  then  he  came. 

226.  An  action  represented  as: 

(1)  Incomplete; 

(2)  Habitual; 

(3)  Going  on  when  some  other  past  action  took  place ; 
is  expressed  by  the  imperfect  tense : 

10  1'  aspettava  ancora.     I  was  still  waiting  for  him. 
Dormivo  se,mpre  b§ne  allora.     I  always  slept  well  then. 

11  cagnino  seguiva  ordinariamente.  The  little  dog 
usually  followed. 

Leggevo  d  alta  voce  quando  egli  entr^.  I  was  read- 
ing aloud  when  he  entered. 

227.  An  action  represented  as  having  taken  place 
in  the  past,  but  in  a  past  either  recently  or  not  yet 


w 

ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

aitirely  elapsed,  and  at  a  moment  not  definitely  in- 
dicated, is  rendered  by  the  past  indefinite: 

Glien'  I19  parlato.     I  have  spoken  to  him  about  it. 
Le  ha  viste?     Have  you  seen  them  ? 

228.  An  action  entirely  past,  completed  in  the  past, 
and  which  happened  at  a  fixed  time  in  the  past,  is 
rendered  by  the  preterite.1  This  is  the  Italian  narra- 
tive tense.  It  is  more  used  in  books  or  formal  public 
address  than  in  conversation  or  easy  correspondence: 

Gli  parlai  un  mese  fa.     I  spoke  to  him  a  month  go. 

Le  vidi  in  ottcjbre.     I  saw  them  in  October. 

Che  be,lla  gita  feci  ieri  con  mio  padre !  What  a  delight- 
ful excursion  I  took  yesterday  with  my  father! 

(a)  The  difference  in  the  usage  of  these  tenses  may 
be  made  clearer  by  the  following  examples: 

Ha  perduto  la  sua  borsa  ?  Have  you  lost  (at  a  time  not 
indicated)  your  purse? 

Si,  ma  V  hq  ritrovata.     Yes,  but  I  found  it  again. 

La  perdei  la  settimana  passata,  e  la  ritrovai  i§ri  V  altro. 
I  lost  it  last  week  and  found  it  again  day  before  yesterday. 

The  usage  of  all  tenses  is  best  learned  by  careful 
reading. 

The  Future 

229.  The  future  is  used  in  Italian  where  it  is  not  in 
English2 : 

(1)  In  dependent  clauses  in  which  in  English  the 
present  tense  really  expresses  futurity: 

Partir§  domani  se  fara  b§l  te,mpo.  I  shall  leave  to-mor- 
row if  the  weather  is  fine. 

1  It  follows  that  the  preterite  must  be  used  after  appena  ch$, 
t9sto  che,  "as  soon  as",  and  the  like. 

2  For  the  future  of  impending  action,  cf.  81  (a)  and  215  (a). 


MOODS   AND   TENSES.  151 

Quando  avr§  l^tto1  la  l§ttera,  ve  la  render^.  When  I  have 
read  the  letter  I  shall  return  it  to  you. 

Remark.  The  present  is  used  in  Italian  where  the 
future  would  be  in  English  to  describe  an  action  more 
vividly  (cf.  225  (a)): 

Vado  in  Germania.     I  shall  go  to  Germany. 

(2)  To  express  a  supposition  or  uncertainty: 
Sara  un  riccone.     He  must  be  a  very  rich  man. 
Saranno  se,i  anni  che  §  meco.     He  must  have  been  with 

me  six  years. 

(3)  Sometimes  with  imperative  force: 

Padre  e  madre  onorerai.  Thou  shalt  honor  thy  father 
and  thy  mother. 

Mi  dirai  tutto  domattina.  You  must  tell  me  everything 
to-morrow  morning. 

The  Conditional. 

230.  The  conditional,  besides  denoting  result  de- 
pendent on  condition  (i.e.,  what  would  happen  in  case 
something  else  were  to  happen)  is  employed  in  Italian : 

(1)  To  express  in  a  reserved  way  a  wish,  request,  or 
statement : 

Vorr§i  andarvi.     I  should  like  to  go  there. 

Avr§bbe  la  bonta  di  dirmelo?  Would  you  have  the  good- 
ness to  tell  me? 

|)  in  casa?  Non  sapre.i.  Is  he  at  home  ?  I  do  not  know 
(  =  he  may  be,  but  I  cannot  tell  you). 

(2)  In  a  general  way  to  express  uncertainty: 
Dovr§i  conoscere  questa  signora.     I  ought  to  know  this 

lady  (  =  it  seems  to  me  I  ought — do  I  know  her?). 

(a)  The  imperfect  ind:cative  is  sometimes  used 
where  we  should  expect  the  conditional : 

The  future  anterior  comes  under  the  same  rule  as  the  future. 


152  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

Se  m'  interrogava,  gli  rispondeva  di  ng.  If  he  had  asked 
me  I  should  have  answered  him  no. 

(b)  The  conditional  anterior  is  often  used  where  we 
should  expect  the  simple  tense: 

La  scala  distava  dal  davanzale  un  bugn  tratto.  Come 
avr§bbero  potuto  attaccarvisi  ?  The  ladder  was  quite  a 
distance  from  the  window-sill.  How  could  they  get  hold 
of  it? 

Imbarcandolo  a  Gf'nova  sul  finir  d'  aprile,  i  sugi  non  avevan 
pensato  che  in  America  egli  avre,bbe  trovato  V  inv§rno,  e 
1'  avevan  vestito  da  estate.  His  family,  putting  him  on 
board  ship  in  Genoa  at  the  end  of  April,  had  not  reflected 
that  in  America  he  would  find  winter,  and  had  dressed  him 
suitably  for  summer. 

The  Imperative. 

231.  The  imperative  is  used  as  in  English,  i.e.,  to  ex- 
press a  command.  The  missing  persons  are  supplied 
from  the  present  subjunctive: 

Non  lo  faccia.     Do  not  (you)  do  it. 

Che  non  paiano.     Let  them  not  appear. 

Non  domandare  che  quello  che  ti  §  necessario.  Ask  only 
what  is  necessary  for  you. 

(a)  The  imperfect  subjunctive  may  also  express  com- 
mand.    Cf.  232. 

The  Subjunctive. 

232.  A  verb  expressing  an  action  indicated  by  what 
has  gone  before  as  in  some  way  doubtful  is  made  sub- 
junctive. 

It  follows  that  the  subjunctive  is  usually  found  in  a 
subordinate  clause.     It  is  used : 

(1)  After  verbs  express' ve   of  command,    consent, 


MOODS   AND   TENSES.  153 

denial,  desire,  fear,  hearsay,  hope,  ignorance,  necessity, 
opinion  (belief,  approval,  disapproval,  etc.),  preference, 
surprise,  will,  wonder,  and  the  like: 

Desidero  che  v§nga  siibito.     I  want  him  to  come  soon. 

Si  dice  che  essa  sia  partita  per  Inghilte.rra.  They  say  that 
she  has  gone  to  England. 

Vorr§i  solamente  che  mi  credessero.  I  only  want  them 
to  believe  me,  only  wish  that  they  would  believe  me. 

Non  mi  piace  che  facciano  cosl.  I  do  not  like  them  to 
do  so. 

Mi  maraviglio  che  siate  ancora  qui.  I  am  surprised  that 
you  are  still  here. 

Credevo  che  fossero  partiti.     I  thought  they  had  gone. 

Pensi  L§i  quanto  ci§  mi  affliggesse.  Think  how  much 
this  (must  have)  distressed  me. 

Bisogna  che  ci  scrivano.     They  must  write  us. 

Non  vorrej.  mai  che  credeste  ch*  io  avessi  scritto  per  pas- 
sione.  I  should  never  wish  you  to  think  that  I  had  written 
out  of  passion. 

(2)  In  expressions  of  emotion  or  sentiment: 
Peccato  che  non  sia  arrivato!     What  a  pity  that  he  has 

not  come! 

Volesse  Dio ! 1     God  grant  it !     Would  to  God ! 

Potessi  scoprir  1'  arcano ! l  Could  I  but  discover  the 
secret ! 

(3)  When  the  antecedent  is  qualified  by  a  com- 
parative superlative  or  by  solo,  unico,  primo,  or  ultimo : 

|)  la  prima  vo,lta  che  1'  abbia  visto.  It  is  the  first  time 
that  I  have  seen  it. 

Tu  se,i  l'unico  amico  di  cui  pc;ssa  fldarmi.  You  are  the 
only  friend  in  whom  I  can  confide. 

(4)  After  a  qualifying  or  restrictive  relative  clause : 

1  This  is  an  example  of  what  is  sometimes  called  the  ' '  independ- 
ent subjunctive",  or  "subjunctive  in  a  principal  clause". 


154  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

Cerco  (P  tin  s§rvo  che  parli  inglese.  I  am  looking  for  a 
servant  who  speaks  (=  can  speak)  English. 

Scelga  un  allgggio  dov'  Ella  pgssa  stare  piu  tranquillo. 
Choose  a  dwelling  where  you  can  be  quieter. 

(a)  Also  after  indefinite  relatives  such  as  chiunque,  "  any 
one",  " whosoever",  and  indefinite  adjectives  such  asqual- 
unque,  "whatever": 

Chiunque  sia,  non  vgglio  vederlo.  Whoever  he  may  be, 
I  do  not  want  to  see  him. 

(5)  After  the  conjunctions  given  tinder  220: 

Andr§  dovunque  sia  egli.     I  will  go  wherever  he  is. 

Gli  scriver§  prima  che  parta.  I  shall  write  him  before  he 
leaves. 

Lo  dico  accioche  ne  sappiano  la  verita.  I  say  it  in  order 
that  they  may  know  the  truth  about  the  matter. 

Quand'  anche  non  1*  avessi  detto.    Even  if  I  had  not  said  it. 

233.  After  the  conjunctions  given  under  219  and  in 
many  other  cases *  the  question,  Shall  the  indicative  or 
the  subjunctive  be  employed?  is  to  be  decided  by 
determining  whether  or  not  the  action  is  indicated  as 
doubtful : 

Se  studiera,  suo  padre  sara  cont§nto.  If  he  studies,  his 
father  will  be  satisfied. 

Se  studiasse  suo  padre  sar§bbe  ccont§nto.  If  he  would 
study  (but  often  he  does  not),  his  father  would  be  satisfied. 

Si  da  per  c§rto  che  la  pace  sia  fatta.  They  say  for  cer- 
tain that  peace  is  made. 

|)  c§rto  che  la  pace  §  fatta.  It  is  certain  that  peace  is 
made. 

|)  la  piu  b§lla  dgnna  che  io  abbia  mai  vista.      She  is  (as  far 

1  In  some  cases  of  so-called  "subjunctive  in  a  principal  clause" 
one  of  these  conjunctions  is  understood:  Fosse  anche  un  magistrate) 
sar§i  contrario  alia  sua  opinione.  Were  he  (=if  he  were)  a  magis- 
trate I  should  not  agree  with  him. 


MOODS  AND   TENSES.  155 

as  I  can  recollect)  the  most  beautiful  woman  I  have  ever 
seen. 

§  senza  dubbio  la  piu  be,lla  do,nna  ch*  io  ho  mai  vista. 
She  is  certainly  the  most  beautiful  woman  I  have  ever  seen. 

Puo  salvarci  quando  vugle.  He  can  save  us  when  he 
wishes. 

Puo  salvarci  quando  V9glia.      He  can  save  us  if  he  wishes. 

Sequence  of  Tenses. 

234.  If  the  principal  verb  is  present  (indicative, 
imperative,  or  subjunctive)  or  future,  the  verb  in  the 
dependent  clause  is  made  present  subjunctive: 

Non  so,  chi  sia  quell*  ugmo.  I  do  not  know  who  that 
man  is. 

Far§  in  mani§ra  che  tutto  sia  pronto.  I  shall  see  to  it 
that  everything  is  ready. 

Gli  dica  che  v§nga  da  me.     Tell  him  to  come  to  me. 

(a)  The  present  tenses  and  the  future  may,  how- 
ever, be  followed  by  the  past  tenses  of  the  subjunctive 
in  sentences  in  which,  if  the  dependent  clause  were  in- 
dependent, its  verb  would  be  in  a  past  tense: 

Crede  ch'  egli  abbia  scritto  questo?  Do  you  believe  he 
wrote  this? 

(b)  Pure  futurity  (where  there  is  no  doubt)  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  future  l : 

Credo  che  verra  domani.  I  think  he  will  come  to- 
morrow. 

235.  If  the  principal  verb  is  past  or  conditional,  the 
dependent  one  is  made  imperfect  subjunctive : 

Lo  fece  senza  ch'  io  lo  sapessi.  He  did  it  without  my 
knowing  it. 

S'  aspettava  che  entrassero  i  dodici  ragazzi  per  pprgere 

1  Cf.  above,  233. 


156  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

gli  attestati.     They  were  waiting  for  the  twelve  boys  to 
come  in  to  bestow  the  certificates. 

Avr§i  piu  fiducia  in  lui  se  avesse  piu  vgglia  d'  imparare. 
I  should  have  more  confidence  in  him  if  he  had  more  desire 
to  learn. 

(a)  The  compound  tenses  in  general  follow  the  rules 
laid  down  for  the  primary  ones,  the  auxiliary  being 
reckoned  as  the  verb: 

Hg  dubitato  che  v^ngano.  I  have  doubted  whether  they 
would  come. 

Aveva  dubitato  che  venissero.  I  had  doubted  whether 
they  would  come. 

(6)  The  past  definite  may,  however,  be  followed  by 
either  the  present  or  the  imperfect  subjunctive,  de- 
pending on  whether  the  action  related  in  the  secondary 
clause  is  represented  as  taking  place  in  present  or  in 
past  time : 

Iddio  ci  ha  dato  la  ragione,  affinche  ce  ne  serviamo.  God 
has  given  us  reason  in  order  that  we  may  make  use  of  it. 

E  come  si  vendicasse  il  Buondelmonte  lo  avete  saputo. 
And  you  know,  you  have  heard  before,  how  B.  avenged 
himself. 

(Exercises  XXXVII  and  XXXVIII.) 


CHAPTER  XV. 

ADVERBS.     NUMERALS  AND  NUMERICAL  VALUES. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

ADVERBS. 

236.  Adverbs  may  be  distinguished  as:  (1)  Adverbs 
of  manner;  (2)  Adverbs  of  place;  (3)  Adverbs  of  de- 
gree and  of  comparison;    (4)  Adverbs  of  affirmation 


ADVERBS.  157 

and  of  negation;    (5)  Adverbs  of  time;    (6)   Numeri- 
cal adverbs. 

Adverbs  of  Manner. 

237.  Most  adverbs  of  manner  are  formed  from  ad- 
jectives by  adding  -mente  to  the  feminine1  singular: 

c§rto,  certain;    certamente,  certainly. 

franco,  frank;  francamen'e,  frankly. 

on§sto,  honest;    onestamente,  honestly. 

sinc§ro,  sincere;   sinceramente,  sincerely. 

(a)  Adjectives  ending  in  e2  when  that  e  is  preceded 
by  any  consonant  except  1  and  r  simply  add  -mente ; 
those  ending  in  e  preceded  by  1  or  r  drop  the  e  and 
add  -mente3: 

felice,  happy;   felicemente,  happily. 

fgrte,  strong;  fortemente,  strongly. 

facile,  easy;    facilmente,  easily. 

difficile,  difficult ;  dirncilmente,  in  a  difficult  manner,  with 
difficulty. 

particolare,  particular;   particolarmente,  particularly. 

(6)  Altrimenti,  "otherwise  "  (from  altro-a),  and  parimenti 
"in  like  manner"  (pari),  are  irregular,  isolated  forms,  and 
guarimente,  "(not)  much",  "(not)  long",  quasimente, 
"  almost ";  are  remarkable  as  showing  -mente  added  to  an 
adverb. 

238.  Other  adverbs  of  manner,  fewer  in  number, 
end  in  e  or  i : 

b§ne,  well.  male,  badly. 

cosi,  thus,  in  this  manner.         volentie,ri,  gladly. 

etc. 

1  Mens,  mente,  being  a  Latin  feminine. 

2  Which  have  but  one  termination  for  masculine  and  feminine. 
Cf.  109. 

3  Adjectives  in  -lie  do  not  drop  the  e:  mplle,  "soft";  molle- 
mente,   "softly". 


158  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

(a)  A  certain  number  ending  in  o  are  really  adjectives 
used  as  adverbs  l: 

alto,  loud.  pr§sto,  quickly. 

basso,  low.  subito,  suddenly,  at  once. 

etc. 

239.  Another  class  of  adverbs  is  formed  by  means 
of  the  suffix  -one  (-oni),  added  usually  to  nouns: 

]J  caduto  boccone.     He  has  fallen  on  his  face. 
Andar  brancolone  (or  tastone).     To  grope  one's  way. 
Andar  carpone.     To  go  on  all  fours. 
Star  gomitoni.     To  lean  on  one's  elbows. 

In  the  same  way: 

cavalcione,  astride.  rotolone,  rolling. 

ginocchioni,  kneeling.  sdrucciolone,  slipping. 

etc. 

240.  Adverbial  locutions  are  common,  as : 

a  gara,  competing.  indarno,  )  . 

6       '  F  .„.     .  .  m  vain, 

a  malincugre,  unwillingly,         invano,    ) 

a  vice,nda,  by  turns.  in  fretta,  in  haste. 

adagio,  slowly.  senza  dubbio,  doubtless. 

etc. 

(a)  Such  locutions  are  found  also  among  the  other 
classes  of  adverbs: 

appena,  as  soon  as,  hardly.        d'  ora  innanzi,  henceforth. 
di  quando  in  quahdo,  from     fra  poco,  soon. 

time  to  time.  per  t§mpo,  betimes,  early. 

di  rado,  seldom.  talvglta,  sometimes. 

etc. 

1  Some  adjectives  from  which  the  -mente  adverb  has  been  regu- 
larly formed  are  yet  used  in  their  adjective  forms  in  certain  ex- 
pressions:   Parlar  chiaro,   "to    speak  plainly";    Vivere    felice,   "to 

live  happily". 


ADVERBS.  159 

Adverbs  of  Place. 

241.  The  principal  adverbs  of  place  are: 

avanti  (avante),  before  (also     ci,  qua,  qui,  here. 

=  comein).  vi,    ivi,    li,    la,    costa,    cola, 

donde,  )      ,  there. 

y  where 
dove,    )  ne,   indi,   quindi,   d'  onde,  di 

addietro,  )  ,    ,  .    ,  la,  thence. 

....         }  behind. 
mdi§tro,  j 

242.  Ci,  "here"  ("there"),  vi,  "there",  and  ne, 
"  thence",  are  used  in  speaking  of  a  place  already  men- 
tioned and  never  when  the  idea  of  place  is  at  all  em- 
phasized. *  They  occupy  the  same  position  with  regard 
to  the  verb,  change  their  form,  and  are  elided  like  the 
conjunctive  pronouns  ci,  vi,  ne  (cf.  97  and  101).  They 
precede  conjunctive  pronouns  beginning  with  1  or  n, 
otherwise  they  follow  the  conjunctive  forms: 

Ce  ne  vi§ne.     It  comes  to  us  from  there. 

Ce  n'  §  molto.      There  is  a  great  deal  of  it. 

Va  alia  citta?  N9,  ne  v§ngo.  Are  you  going  to  the  city  ? 
No,  I  am  coming  from  there. 

(a)  "Here  it  is",  "here  she  is",  etc.  =§ccolo, 
§ccola,  etc. : 

IJccoci  arrivati.     Here  we  are. 

243.  When  the  idea  of  place  is  at  all  emphasized 
qui  or  qua  is  used  for  "here",  li,  la,  ivi,  costa,  costi, 
for  "there".  In  general  costi  and  costa  indicate  a 
place  near  the  person  addressed,  li  and  la  a  place  re- 
mote from  both  the  person  speaking  and  the  person 
spoken  to: 

1  They  are  often  used  where  they  would  in  English  be  super- 
fluous. 


160  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Ven'  §  molti.     There  are  a  great  many  of  them. 

Viene  dalla  citta?  No,  vi  torn  a.  Is  he  coming  from  the 
city?     No,  he  is  returning  to  it. 

Venite  qua. — Andate  li.     Come  here. — Go  there. 

Fatti  in  costa.     Go  that  way  (the  way  near  you). 

Mia  moglie  §  di  la.  My  wife  is  there  (e.g.,  in  the  next 
room). 

Adverbs  of  Degree  and  of  Comparison. 

244.  The  principal  adverbs  of  comparison  are  cosi, 
come,1  phi,  meno,2  di,  and  che.3 

Following  are  the  principal  adverbs  of  degree  (some 
times  called  adverbs  of  quantity) : 

abbastanza,    enough,  sum-     po,co,  little. 

ciently.  quanto,  how  much,  as  much. 

alquanto,  somewhat.  tanto,  so  much. 

assai,  very.  trgppo,  too  much.4 

molto,  much. 

etc. 

Adverbs  of  Affirmation  and  Negation. 

245.  The  principal  adverbs  of  affirmation  are: 

si,    I  davvero,    indeed,    truly,    of 

.  v    >  yes. 
gia,  )  course. 

sicuro,  yes  indeed,  of  course, 
(a)  Gia 5  is  used  in  assenting  to  a  self-evident  truth ; 
in  other  cases  si  is  employed : 
Pigve?     Si.     Is  it  raining?     Yes. 
Pio,ve  a  catinglle. — Gia.     It  is  pouring. — Quite  true. 

»Cf.    121. 

2  Cf.  122  and  125. 
3Cf.  126. 

4  For  molto,  poco,  quanto,  tanto,  trpppo,  adj.,  cf.  128. 
6  Gia  gia  sometimes  =  " almost":    II  sole  toccava  gia  gia  la  cima 
del  monte.     The  sun  was  almost  touching  the  mountain  peak. 


ADVERBS.  1 6 1 

246.  The  principal  adverbs  of  negation  are: 

119,  no,  not.  mai,  ) 

non,  not.  giammai,  v  never. 

non-mica,         \  non-mai,  ) 

non-punto,        v  not  at  all.  non-piu,  no  longer. 
nignte  affatto,  ) 

(a)  Ng  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  non.  It 
is  then  placed  after  the  noun  or  the  statement  of  fact 
which  is  made  negative: 

Ha  denari  ma  amici  ng.     He  has  money  but  not  friends. 
Saparlare,  pensare  ng.      He  can  talk,  he  cannot  think. 

(b)  Non  always  immediately  precedes  the  verb1  un- 
less the  latter  is  accompanied  by  a  conjunctive  pro- 
noun, which  then  stands  between.  In  the  locutions 
non-mica,  non-mai,  etc.,  the  verb  stands  between  the 
two  members: 

Non  parla  — Non  dice  nignte. 

Non  g  mica  tardi.     Non  ha  mai  detto  cosi.1 

Non  lo  farg  mai  piu. 

(c)  Non  has  not  a  negative  value  in  the  che  non  of 
comparison,2  nor  in  finche  non,  "until7',  se  non  che, 
"except  that",  etc.: 

Hg  piu  di  denaro  che  non  credevo.  I  have  more  money 
than  I  thought. 

Lo  studierg  finche  non  V  avrg  imparato.  I  shall  study  it 
until  I  have  learned  it. 

Non  ne  ha  che  due.3     He  has  only  two. 


1  In   a  compound  tense  the  auxiliary  is  considered   the  verb. 
Cf.  235  (a). 
2Cf.  127. 
3  ="he  has  not  but  two". 


l62 


ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


Adverbs  of  T  me. 
247.  The  principal  adverbs  of  time  are : 


adesso, 

3         y  now. 
ora, 

allora,  then. 

dibu9n'ora,| 
per  tempo,    J 

domani,  to-morrow. 

i§ri,  yesterday. 

9ggi,  to-day. 


quando,  when. 
se,mpre,  always. 
subito,  at  once. 
talv9lta,  sometimes. 
tardi,  late. 
tgsto,  soon. 
ultimo,  at  last. 
prima,  at  first.1 


etc. 


Comparison  of  Adverbs. 

248.  Adverbs   are   regularly   compared   like   adjec- 
tives (cf.  1 19-127) : 

Lo  fa  cosi  f acilmente  come  suo  fratello. 

■  ■  ■  j 

Lo  fa  piu  facilmente  che  suo  frate.Ho. 

Lo  fa  meno  facilmente.     Lo  fa  il  piu  facilmente  di  tutti. 

Lo  fa  molto  facilmente.     Lo  fa  manco  male  di  me. 

■  a  ■  ■  ■ 

249.  The  following  are  compared  irregularly: 


bene,  well 


male,  badly 


meglio,  better 


pfggio,  worse 


il  meglio,2  best 

benissimo,       )  .. 

>  very  well 
ottimamente,  )        J 

il  pfggio,  worst 

malissimo,         ) 


molto,  much  (very) 
ppco,  little 


pessimamente,  {  yery  badly 
piu,  more  il  piu,  most 

moltissimo,  very  much 
meno,  less  il  meno,  )  least, 

pochissimo,    f  very  little 

1  Che  is  an  adverb  of  time  =  quando  in  sentences  like:  lo  1'  ho 
visto  che  faceva  ancpr  piu.  caldo.  I  have  seen  it  when  it  was  still 
hotter. 

2  Meglio  is  an  adjective-noun  in  such  expressions  as:  Questo  gli 
parve  il  meglio  o  il  meno  male,  "this  seemed  to  him  the  best  course, 
or  the  least  bad".  In  fare  alia  meglio  it  is  again  an  adjective, 
maniera  or   some    such  noun  being  understood. 


ADVERBS.  163 

(a)  Adverbs  of  superlative  meaning  are  also  formed 
by  adding  -mente  to  the  -issimo  (-e"rrimo)  forms  of 
adjectives    cf.  124) : 

sapi§nte,  learned;  sapientemente,  sapientissimo,  sapien- 
tissimamente. 

grande,  maggiore,  maggiormente. 

salubre,  salub^rrimo,  saluberrimamente. 

These  latter  forms  are  not  so  often  used  as  are  the 

forms  in  -issimo. 

(b)  Suffixes  are  also  used  with  adverbs,  although 
less  often  than  with  nouns  and  adjectives.  The  num- 
ber with  which  they  can  be  used  is  restricted  to  the 
class  mentioned  under  238,  and  not  all  of  those  are  so 
modified : 

Parla  benino.     He  speaks  rather  well. 
Benone!1     Very  good!     Exceedingly  well  done! 

(c)  The  repetition  of  an  adverb  makes  it  superla- 
tive.    This  is  a  common  method  in  Italian2 : 

L'  ha  fatto  ben  b§ne.  He  has  done  it  very  well,  with 
much  care. 

Don  Abbondio  tornava  bel  b§llo  dalla  passeggiata.  Don 
A.  was  coming  peacefully  home  from  his  walk. 

Parlate  pian  piano !     Speak  very  softly. 

Position  of  Adverbs. 

250.  The  Italian  is  rather  free  in  regard  to  the  posi 
tion  of  adverbs. 

Excepting  non  (246  (b))  they  oftenest  follow  thv. 
verb  qualified.     They  need  not,  however,  follow  it  im 

1  This  -one  is  the  suffix  mentioned  in  167,  and  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  adverbs  in  -one  in  239. 

2  This  practice  is  extended  also  to  adjectives. 


164 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


mediately.  An  adverb  qualifying  an  adjective,  another 
adverb,  or  a  phrase  usually  precedes  it: 

Rarissimamente  incontravano  due  o  tre  viaggiatori  a 
cavallo.  They  met  at  very  long  intervals  two  or  three 
travelers  on  horseback. 

Appena  arrivati  sono  venuti  a  trovarmi.  They  came  to 
see  me  as  soon  as  they  arrived. 

Essa  §  alquanto  piu  attempata.     She  is  somewhat  older. 

L'  han  fatto  apposta.     They  have  done  it  purposely. 

Egli  guardava  il  ragazzo  s§mpre  piu  fissamente.  He 
looked  always  more  fixedly  at  the  boy. 


NUMERALS 
Cardinal  Numerals. 
251.  The  cardinal  numerals  are : 


1  uno 

18  diciotto 

60 

sessanta 

2  due 

19  diciann9ve 

70 

settanta 

3  tre 

20  venti 

80 

ottanta 

4  quattro 

21  ventuno2 

90 

novanta 

5  cinque 

22  ventidue 

100 

cento 

6  sei 

23  ventitre 

IOI 

centuno5 

7  sette 

24  venti  quattro 

etc. 

8  9U0 

25  venticinque 

120 

cento  venti, 

9  nove 

26  ventisei 

etc. 

10  dieci 

27  ventisftte 

200 

dugento  (duec§nto, 

1 1   undici 

28  ventotto3 

ducento) 

1 2  dodici 

29  ventinpve 

300 

trecento 

13  tredici 

30  trenta 

etc. 

14  quattordici 

31   trentuno4 

1000 

mille 

1 5   quindici 

etc. 

2000 

due  mila 

16  sedici 

40  quaranta 

1 7  diciasette' 

50  cin  quanta 

(a)   Uno 

is 

the  only  cardinal  w 

hich  has  a  feminine 

1  Or  diciass 

ette 

3  Or  vent'  otto. 

5  Or  cent'  uno. 

2  Or  vent'  uno. 

*  Or  trent'  uno. 

NUMERALS.  165 

form:  una.1  If  the  noun  modified  by  ventuno,  trent- 
uno,  etc.,  follows  the  numeral,  it  is  made  singular;  if 
it  precedes  it,  it  is  regularly  made  plural: 

Ventuna  settimana.     Twenty-one  weeks. 

Lire  centuna.     One  hundred  and  one  liras. 

(b)  Millione,  'million",  billione,  'billion",  trillione, 
"trillion",  etc.,  are  nouns  of  number,  having  a  regu- 
lar plural,  millioni,  billiori,  etc.;  the  plural  mila  has 
already  been  given.  With  these  exceptions  and  that 
of  uno,  the  cardinals  are  indeclinable. 

(c)  No  article  is  used  with  cento,  'a  hundred",  and 
mille,  " a  thousand".  No  conjunction  is  used  between 
the  different  parts  of  a  number : 

Cento  quarantacinque  (centoquarantacinque).  one  hun- 
dred and  forty-five. 

(d)  ' '  Eleven  hundred, '  '  twelve  hundred ' ' ,  etc. ,  must 
be  translated  "one  thousand  one  hundred",  etc.,  and 
not  counted  by  hundreds: 

Nell'  anno  mille  ngve  cento  due.  In  the  year  nineteen 
hundred  and  two. 

0)  "  Both"  =tutti  e  due  or  i  due,  "  all  three"  =tutti  e 
tre  or  i  tre,  etc. 

(/)  The  numerals  after  twenty  may  be  written  as 
two  words  or  as  one  (ventidue  or  venti  due)  except 
when  the  second  number  is  one  or  eight,  in  which  case 
they  must  be  written  as  one: 

Trentuno  or  trent'  uno,  trentotto,  etc. 

From  one  hundred  and  forty  on  cento  may  be 
shortened  into  cen: 

Cenquaranta,  censettanta,  etc. 

252.  The  ordinal  numbers  are: 

1  As  an  adjective  it  has  the  plural  forms:   gli  uni,  le  une. 


1 66  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

ist   primo  21st    ventesimo     primo    or 

2d    secondo  ventunesimo 

3d    tfrzo  2 2d     ventesimo   secondo   or 

4th  quarto  ventiduesimo 

5th  quinto  etc. 

6th  sesto  30th  trentesimo3 

7  th  sfttimo  40th  quarantesimo3 

8th  ottavo  etc. 

9th  nono  1  ooth  centesimo 

10th  dfcimo  110th  centodfcimo4 

nth  undfcimo  or  dfcimo  primo1  115th  cento  quindicesimo 

1 2th  duodecimo  or  df  cimo  secondo1  etc. 

13th  tredfcimo  or  dfcimo  terzo  200th  dugentesimo  or  ducen- 

14th  quattordicesimo  or  tesimo     or    duecen- 

dfcimo  quarto  tesimo 

15th  quindicesimo  or  dfcimo  quinto  300th  trecentesimo 

1 6th  sedicfsimo  or  dfcimo  sesto  etc. 

17th  diciassfttimo  or  df  cimo  sf  ttimo  1000th  millesimo 

1 8th  diciottesimo  or  dfcimo  ottavo  2000th  duemillesimo 

19th  diciannovesimoordfcimon9no  etc. 
20th  ventesimo2                                    1000000th  millionesimo 

etc. 

(a)  The  ordinals  are  all  adjectives: 

La  trentesima  parte  di  novanta  §  tre.  The  thirtieth  of 
ninety  is  three. 

(b)  Fractions  are  expressed  by  the  regular  ordinal  num- 
bers except  "one  half"  =  un  me,zzo,  una  meta.  Of  these 
m§zzo  is  an  adjective,  me' a  a  noun: 

In  m§zzo  minuto  ci  salgo.  In  half  a  minute  I  shall  come 
up  there. 

Datemene  solamente  la  meta.     Give  me  only  half  of  it. 
Un  quinto,  J.     Due  dfcimi,  T2Tr.     Due    e    me,zzo,  2\. 

(c)  "Firstly",  " secondly "=  primo,  secondo,  or  pri- 
mieramente,  secondariam  nte,  etc. 

1  Undicesimo,  dodicesimo,  also  exist. 

2  Vigesimo  is  also  found. 

8  Trigesimo,  quadragesimo,  are  rare. 

4  Centesimo  dfcimo,  etc.,  are  not  allowable. 


NUMERICAL  VALUES.  167 

253.  Multiplicatives  (which  are  adjectives)  are: 
ddppio,  double.         triplo,1  triple.         quadruple* (  etc.: 
Una  doppia  vittgria.     A  double  victoria. 

254.  Collectives  are  the  adjectives: 
ambo,  ambedue,  y 

entrambo,  ) 

And  the  nouns : 

una  C9ppia,  a  couple.  una  dozzina,  a  dozen. 

un  paio,  a  pair.  una  ventina,  a  score. 

un  terno,  a  combination  of  un  centinajo,4  (about)  ahun- 

three  numbers.  dred.                            [sand. 

una  decina,3  half  a  score,  ten.  un  migliajo,  (about)  a  thou- 

NUMERICAL    VALUES. 

Dates. 

255.  In  dates  where  the  number  representing  a  year 
is  preceded  by  a  preposition  and  not  by  the  name  of  a 
month,  the  definite  article  must  be  used  with  it : 

Accadde  nel  mille  trecento  ottantuno.     It  happened  in 

1.381. 

Fino  dal  18 12  avea  presentato  a  suo  padre  una  trag^dia 

in  tre  atti  Even  in  181 2  he  had  presented  to  his  father  a 
tragedy  in  three  acts. 

Dal  1870  in  pgi.     From  1870  on. 

(a)  It  is  frequently  used  also  where  the  name  of  a 
month  precedes: 

Nacque  il  29  giugno  del  1798.  He  was  born  the  29th  of 
June,  1798. 

1  Also  triplice,  quadruplice,  etc. 
2Cf.  251  (s). 

3  Sestina,  "a  poem  of  six  stanzas,  stanza  of  six  lines",  is  not  now 
a  collective. 

4  Cf.  63.     Di  is  used  after  these  collectives:  Un  centinaio  di  u^mini. 


1 68  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

Questi  1119SSO  a  compassione  deir  amico,  nell'  ottobre  del 
1833  lo  meng  seco  a  Napoli.  Moved  with  compassion  for 
his  friend,  in  October  1833  he  took  him  with  him  to  Naples. 

(b)  The  definite  article  is  used  before  the  numeral 
indicating  the  day  of  the  month  as  in  English,  but  it 
is  not  omitted  in  dating  letters  etc.,  as  it  is  in  English: 

Quanti  abbiamo  del  mese?  Qggi  §  il  di§ci.  What  day 
of  the  month  is  it?     To-day  is  the  tenth. 

Allora  scriviamo :  Fire,nze,  il  10  (or  il  die,ci)  maggio,  1902. 
Then  let  us  write:   Florence,  May  10,  1902. 

(c)  Primo  is  the  only  ordinal  used  in  indicating  the 
days  of  the  month;  otherwise  the  cardinals  are  em- 
ployed : 

II1  primo  (di)  maggio,  il  due  maggio,  il  di  tre  di  maggio. 

Time  of  Day. 

256.  The  definite  article  is  used  with  numerals  indi- 
cating the  time  of  day  and  ora,  ore,  is  understood  with 
all.  It  follows  that  the  article  is  feminine,  and  that, 
except  in  the  case  of  "  one  o'clock",  the  verb  is  plural: 

Che  ora  §?  Sono  le  undici.  Sono  le  ngve.  Sono  le 
gtto  e  mezzo. 

Sono  le  cinque  meno  die,ci. 

(a)  II  tocco  is  commonly  used  instead  of  V  una,  "  one 
o'clock".' 

(b)  M§zzo  giorno  =  "noon",  mezzangtte  =  "mid- 
night". Antimeridiano  =  " in  the  morning",  "a.m."; 
pomeridiano  =  "  in  the  afternoon",  "p.m.": 

Arrivano  alle  cinque  pomeridiane.     They  will   arrive  at 

5  p.m. 

1  Li  or  ai  may  also  be  employed:  Vifnna  li  cinque  (ai  cinque) 
aprile.      "Vienna,  April  5." 


NUMERICAL  VALUES.  169 


Numerical  Titles. 

257.  Ordinals  are  used  in  the  numerical  titles  of 
rulers,  also  in  indicating  a  book',  chapter,  etc.,  "but  no 
article  intervenes  as  in  English : 

Carlo  quinto.     Charles  the  Fifth. 

Libro  quarto,  capitolo  t§rzo,  paragrafo  119110.  Book  the 
Fourth,  chapter  three,  paragraph  nine. 

Luigi  de_'cimo  se.sto  e.ra  un  re  sfortunato  molto.  Louis 
the  Sixteenth  was  a  very  unfortunate  king. 

Duration  of  Time.     Age. 

258.  The  verb  avere  is  used  to  denote  age : 

Che  eta  (or  Quanti  anni)  ha  suo  figlio?  Ha  cinque  anni 
etremes'.  How  old  is  your  son?  Five  years  and  three 
months. 

Avrg  sessantadue  anni  nell'  aprile  dell'  anno  venturo. 
Cosi  rono  adesso  nel  mio  sessantesimo  secondo  anno.  I 
shall  be  sixty-two  years  old  next  April.  So  I  am  now  in 
my  sixty-second  year. 

259.  The  verb  fare,  or  less  often  §ssere,  is  used  to  de- 
note duration  of  time: 

Un  anno  fa,  or  §  un  anno.     A  year  ago. 

Dodici  anni  fa,  or  Sono  dodici  anni.     Twelve  years  ago. 

|)  molto  t§mpo  che  §  mo,rto.     He  died  a  long  time  ago. 

Miscellaneous  Numerical  Idioms. 

260.  "Twice  two  are  four"  =due  via  due,  quattro. 
"Two  and  two  are  four"  =due  e  due  fanno  quattro. 
"  Six  minus  three  leaves  three"  =se,i  meno  tre,  tre. 

"  A  table  .  .  .  long  by  .  .  .  broad"  =una  tavola  della 
iunghezza  di  .  .  .  e  della  larghezza  di  .  .  .  . 


i7o  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


INTERJECTIONS. 

261.  The  commoner  interjections  and  expressions 
used  as  interjections  are: 

(1)  Expressive  of  joy,  admiration,   approval,   and 

the  like: 

Ah!  Ah!  Oh!  Oh!  Bene!  Well!  Good!  Bravo!1 
Good !     Well  done !     Che ! 2     What ! 

(2)  Grief,  pain,  fear,  pity,  and  the  like: 

Ah!  Ahi!  Ohi!  Ahim§  (or  Ohim§) !  Alas!  Ahimisero! 
Oh  pQvero  me !     Wretched  being  that  I  am ! 

Peccato  (or  Che  peccato) !     What  a  pity ! 

Pieta!  Pity!  Mercy!  Oh,  poverino!  Oh,  poor  thing! 
Den !     Alas !     Woe ! 

(3)  Surprise: 

OhbeUa!  Curioso!  Strange!  Ehi!  Ahi!  E  cosi!  Per 
Bacco !    Man ! 

(4)  Disdain,  disgust,  disapproval: 

Oib§!     Fie!    Vergogna!     Shame!  Guai!   Beware!    Woe! 
Eh,  via,  sciocchezze!     Oh,  come,  nonsense!     Questa  § 
b§lla!     A  fine  state  of  affairs! 

(5)  Encouragement: 

Orsu!  Come  now!  Animo!  Courage!  Di  su!  Speak 
out! 

Via!  via!  cheimpgrta?  Come,  come,  what  does  it  mat- 
ter? 

(6)  Enthusiasm,  applause: 

Evviva!     Hurrah!     Viva  V  Italia!     Long  live  Italy! 

1  This  is  an  adjective.  Thus  to  two  persons  one  would  say, 
Bravi!;   to  a  woman,  Brava! 

2  Che  or  O  che  is  oftcd  used,  especially  in  Tuscany,  to  introduce 
a  question  implying  doubt:  Che  V  abbia  gia  fattol  "Can  it  be  that 
he  has  already  done  it!" 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  171 

Largo!  largo!  che  passa  i  re!  Room!  room!  the  king 
is  passing! 

(7)  Silence: 

Zitto !  Piano !  '  Hush !    Gently !     Basta !     Enough ! 

(8)  Miscellaneous: 

Grazie!  Tante  grazie!  Mille  grazie !  Thanks!  So  many 
thanks!   A  thousand  thanks! 

§h  giusto !  Per  P  appunto !     Just  so !    Exactly  so ! 

Addio !  Good-by !  Arrivederci !  Good-by !  Till  we  meet 
again ! 

B§n  venuto !  B§n  trovato !     Welcome ! 

Diamine !     The  dickens !  The  deuce ! 

Sta  fresco !     He  is  in  a  nice  fix ! 

{Exercises  XXXIX  and  XL) 
IRREGULAR  VERBS, 

ARRANGED    ACCORDING    TO    THEIR    CONJUGATIONS.1 

262.  All  the  parts  necessary  in  order  to  construct  the 
verb,  using  as  models  trarre,  p.  117,  and  venire,  p.  118, 
are  given  below.  Where  the  present  participle  is  given 
the  following  forms,  if  not  given,  are  to  be  constructed 
from  its  stem2 :  the  first  and  second  persons  plural  of  the 
present  indicative,  the  second  person  singular  and  plural, 
and  the  first  person  plural  of  the  preterite,  the  whole  of 
the  imperfect  indicative  and  subjunctive.  If  the  present 
participle  is  not  given,  it,  as  well  as  the  forms  mentioned 
above  is  to  be  constructed  from  the  infinitive  with  the 
regular  endings  of  the  appropriate  conjugation.  If  the 
future  is  given,  the  conditional  is  to  be  constructed  from 

1  See  alphabetical  list,  p.   198  sq. 

2  Observe  that  all  these  forms  are  weak,  i.e.,  stressed  on  the  end- 
ing. 


172  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

it ;  if  the  future  is  not  given,  it  and  the  conditional  are 
to  be  constructed  from  the  infinitive. 

For  the  construction  of  the  preterite  see  178  and  179. 

The  imperative,  unless  otherwise  stated,  is  like  the 
corresponding  forms  of  the  present  indicative. 

Irregular  Verbs  of  the  First  Conjugation. 

There  are  but  four  irregular  verbs  of  the  first  conju- 
gation.1 

1.  Andare,  to  go,  andato;   andai;   andr§  (ander^).2 

Present  Indicative.  Imperative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

Vado  or  vo  andiamo  Vada  andiamo 

vai  andate  Va'  andate  vada  andiate 

va  vanno  vada  vadano 

Like  andare: 

riandare,  to  go  back  again,  to  examine  again. 

trasandare,  to  go  beyond,  to  neglect. 

2.  Dare,  to  give,  dato;  di§di  or  d§tti,  dar§. 


Pres.  Ind. 

Pret.  Ind.                                            Imperative. 

DQ  diamo 

di§di  or  detti     demmo 

dai  date 

desti                   deste                                         da'  date 

da  danno 

difde  or  d§tte3  difdero  or  dfttero 

Present  Subjunctive.                      Imperfect  Subjunctive. 

dia  diamo                                     dessi  dessiamo 

dia  diate                                       dessi  deste 

dia  diano  or  dieno                    desse  dSssero 

Like  dare : 

ridare 

,  to  give  again.            sdare,  to  become  idle. 

Remark.     The  first  and  third  sing.  ind.  pres.  (rid§, 
rida)  take  the  written  accent. 

1  Really  only  one,  dare;  fare  and  stare  not  belonging  here  origi- 
nally, as  their  preterites  show.      (Cf.  Latin  forms.) 

2  Forms  bracketed  are  for  reference  and  are  not  to  be  learned 
for  use  in  exercises.     Forms  preceded  by  "or"  are  alternate. 

3  Di£  also  exists,  pi.  dier,  diero,  or  didrono. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


173 


3.  Fare,  to  do,  make,   fac§ndo,  fatto;   feci,  far§ 

Imperative. 

fa'  fate 


Present  Indicative. 

faccio  or  fo  facciamo 

fai  x  fate 

fa  l  fanno 


Present  Subjunctive. 
faccia  facciamo 
faccia  facciate 
f&ccia  f&cciano 


Like  fare: 

affarsi,  to  suit,  become. 
assuefarsi,  to  accustom  one's 

self. 
confarsi,  to  be  suitable. 
contraffare,  to  counterfeit. 
disfare  (sfare),  to  undo. 


liquefare,  to  liquefy. 
malfare,  to  do  mischief. 
mansuefare,  to  tame. 
rifare,  to  do  again. 
soddisfare,  to  satisfy. 


Remark.     All  these  verbs  take  the  written  accent 
on  the  1st  and  3d  sing.  ind.  pres.:  disfa,  rifa,  etc. 
4.  Stare,  to  stand,  be;  stato,  stetti,  star§. 

Pres.  Ind.  Pret  Ind.  Imperative. 

stg  stiamo 
stai  state 
sta  stanno 

Like  stare 


Pret  Ind. 

stetti  stemmo 
stesti  steste 
stette  stf ttero 


Present  Subjunctive. 
stia  stiamo 
sta'  state         stia  stiate 

stia,  stiano  or  stieno 


ristare,  to  cease.  sovrastare,  to  stand  over,  to 

soprastare,  to  stand  over,  to  tarry. 

command.  sottostare,  to  be  subject. 

Rista,  etc.,  are  accented  like  the  compounds  of  dare 
and  fare. 

(a)  Distare,  "  to  be  distant,"  is  regular  in  the  present 
and  has  no  present  participle ;  otherwise  it  is  like  stare ; 
constare,  contrastare,  instare,  ostare,  etc.,  are  regular 
verbs. 

(Exercises  XLI  and  XLII.) 


1  Faci,  face,  are  also  found. 


174  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Irregular  Verbs  of  the  Second  Conjugation. 

263.  The  great  majority  of  the  verbs  of  the  second 
conjugation  are  more  or  less  irregular.1  Of  those  end- 
ing in  -ere,  only  two,  godere  and  temere,  are  perfectly 
regular,  i.e.,  have  all  the  regular  forms  without  alter- 
nate irregular  ones. 

The  following  2  are  all  the  '-ere  verbs  that  are  per- 
fectly regular: 


battere 

mescere 

prgmere 

spl§ndere 

credere 

mi§tere 

ricevere 

tdndere 

■ 

fremere 

pascere 

rifl§ttere3 

v^ndere 

gemere 

p§ndere 

rip^tere 

(a)  Irregular  Verbs  of  the  Second  Conjugation  in  -6re. 

264.  Most  of  these  verbs  are  strong,  i.e.,  stressed  on 
the  stem-vowel,  only  in  the  present  indicative  and  sub- 
junctive, and  in  the  preterite,4  the  past  participle  being, 
except  in  persuadere  and  rimanere,  weak,  i.e.,  ending 
regularly  in  -uto.  The  infinitive,  the  vowel  of  the 
antepenult  being  stressed,  is  never  contracted ;  the  im- 
perfect tenses  may  therefore  be  formed  directly  from 
it.  The  future  and  conditional  are  in  some  verbs  con- 
tracted. 


Verbs  irregular  in  the  present  tenses,5  but  having 
the  regular  weak  preterite : 

1  Conversely,  the  great  majority  of  all  irregular  verbs  are  of  the 
second  conjugation. 

2  And  their  compounds. 

3  In  the  sense  of  "  to  meditate."     See  68,  p.  184. 

4  Some  have  the  weak  preterite. 

8  Sometimes  with  contracted  future. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  175 

5.  Dovere,  to  owe;   dovuto,  dovei  fdov§tti),  dovrj.     Im- 
perative lacking. 

Present  Indicative. 
devo  (debbo,  dfggio)  dobbiamo  (deggiamo) 

devi  (debbi)  dovete 

deve  (debbe)  d^vono  (dfbbono,  dfggiono) 

Present  Subjunctive. 
debba  (deva,  d^ggia)  dobbiamo 

debba       "  "  dobbiate 

d§bba  d§bbano  (d§vano,  d^ggiano) 

6.  Potere,  to  be  able,  potuto;   potei,  poti-9.     No  impera- 
tive. 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

posso  possiamo  possa  possiamo 

pu9i    potete  ppssa  possiate 

pug      p9ssono  ppssa  p9ssano 

7.  Sedere,  to  sit,  seduto;  sedei  or  sedftti,  seder§. 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

si§do  or  seggo  sediamo  (seggiamo)  sieda  or  segga  sediamo(seggiamo) 
siedi  sedete  "      "       "      sediate 

si§de  sifdono  or  sfggono  si| dano  or  sfggano 

Like  sedere : 

■ 

possedere,  to  possess.  soprassedere,  to  supersede. 

risedere,  to  reside. 

(Exercise  XLIII.) 

II. 

Verbs  irregular  in  the  present  and  having  a  redu- 
plicated preterite  l : 

8.  Cadere,  to  fall,  caduto;   caddi,2  cadr§. 

Present  Indicative  Present  Subjunctive. 

cado  (caggio)  cadiamo  (caggiamo)  cada  (caggia)  cadiamo(caggiamo) 
cadi  cadete  cadiate  (caggiate) 

cade  cadono  (caggiono)  cadano  (caggiano) 

1  Avere  belongs  to  this  class,  but  has  already  been  given  (74). 
Like  avere:  riavere,  etc. 

2  The  other  forms  of  the  preterite  are  to  be  constructed  from  this, 
by  the  aid  of  179:  caddi,  cadesti,  cadde,  cademmo,  cadeste,  cad- 
dero. 


176 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


Like  cadere: 

■ 

accadere,  to  happen.  ricade*re,  to  fall  again, 

decadere,  to  decoy.  scad6re,  to  fall  off. 

9.  Sapere,  to  know,  saputo;  s§ppi,  sapr§. 

Present  Indicative.  Imperative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

so    sappiamo  sappia  sappiam® 

sai  sapete  sappi  sappiate  sappiate 

sa  sanno  "       sappiano 

10.  Tenere,  to  hold,  tenuto;  tenni,  terr$. 


Present  Subjunctive. 

tenga  teniamo  (tenghiamo) 
teniate 
"      tfngano 


ottenere,  to  obtain. 
rattenere,  to  detain. 
ritenere,  to  detain,  to  retain, 
sostenere,  to  sustain. 
trattenere,  to  entertain,  keep 
waiting. 


Present  Indicative. 

tengo  teniamo  (tenghiamo) 
tieni    tenete 
tifne   tfngono 

Like  tenere: 
appartenere,  to  belong,    [to. 
attenersi,  to  belong,  to  hold 
contenere,  to  contain. 
intrattenere,     to    entertain, 

delay.  [keep. 

mantenere,      to     maintain, 

11.  Volere,  to  wish,  voluto;  vglli  or  vglsi,  vorr^. 

Present  Indicative.  Imperative.  Present  Subjunctive 

v$glio  vogliamo  v^glia  vogliamo 

vupi     volete  v^gli  vogliate  "      vogliate 

vuole   v9gliono  v^gliano 

Like  volere : 

■ 

disvolere    (svolere)    not    to      rivolfre,  to  wish  again,  to 
wish,  to  refuse.  have  a  mind  to  do  again. 

III. 
Preterites  in  -si : 

12.  Calere,  to  matter,  make  a  difference,  caluto,  calse. 

Impersonal.     Imperative,   present   participle,  future   and 
conditional  lacking.1 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

cale  c&glia 

1  Moise  gives  carra  (calera)  and  carrebbe  (calerebbe),  but  they 
are  not  in  use.     Caluto  is  also  almost  never  used. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS.  177 

13.  Dolere,  to  grieve,  hurt,  doluto;   dolsi,  dorr$. 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

d9lgo  (dQglio)  dogliamo  d9lga  (d9glia)  dogliamo  (dolghiamo) 

du9li  dolete  dogliate 

du9le  d9lgono  (d9gliono)    "  d^lgano  (d9glianoj 

Like  dolere: 

condolere,  to  condole.      ridolere,  to  grieve  again. 

14.  Persuadere,  to  persuade,  persuaso;   persuasi. 
Regular  except  in  the  preterite  and  past  participle. 
Like  persuadere : 

dissuadere,  to  dissuade. 

15.  Rimanere,  to  remain,  rimasto  (or  rimaso) ;    rimasi, 
rimarr^. 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

rimango  rimaniamo  (riman-  rimanga  rimaniamo  (rimanghi- 

ghiamo)  amoj 

rimani     rimanete  rimanga  rimaniate 
rimane     rimangono  rimangano 

Like  rimanere: 

permanere,  to  remain. 

16.  Valere,  to  be  worth,  valuto  (valso) ;   valsi,  varr^. 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

valgo  (vaglio)   vagliamo  (val-  valga  (vaglia)  vagliamo   (valghi- 

ghiamo)  amo) 

vali  valete  vagliate 

vale  valgono  (vaglione)  valgano  (vagliano) 

Like  valere : 

equivalere,  to  be  equivalent,  invalere,  to  become  valid. 

of  the  same  worth.  rivalere,    to    recover,    avail 
prevalere,  to  prevail.  one's  self  again. 

IV. 

Preterite  in  -vi : 

17.  Parere,  to  seem,  appear,  paruto  or  parso ;  parvi,  parr  J. 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

paio  paiamo  or  pariamo  paia  paiamo  or  pariamo 

pari   parete  paiate 

pare  paiono  paiano 


178 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 
V. 


Preterite  in  -cqui  * : 

18.  Giacere,  to  lie,  giaciuto;   giacqui,  giacer§. 


Present  Indicative. 

giaccio  giacciamo 
giaci      giacete 
glace      giacciono 

Like  giacere: 

piacere,  to  please. 


Present  Subjunctive. 

giaccia  giacciamo 
giacciate 
"       giacciano 


tacere,  to  be  silent. 


VI. 


Solere  and  vedere  are  somewhat  different  from  any 
of  the  other  irregular  verbs  of  this  conjugation : 

19.  Solere,  to  be  in  the  habit  of,  sglito,2   has  no  impera- 
tive, preterite,  future,  nor  conditional. 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive.  Imperfect  Subjunctive. 

s<?glio  sogliamo  sdglia  sogliamo  solessi,  etc. 

suoli    solete  sogliate 

suole  s<?gliono  "      s9gliano 

20.  Vedere,  to  see,  veduto  or  visto;  vidi  (v§ddi),  vedr§. 


Present    Indicative. 

vedo  (veggo,  veggio) 

vedi3 

vede 

Like  vedere : 

■ 

antivedere,4  to  foresee. 
awedersi,    to    perceive,    re- 
mark. 
divedere,5  to  convince. 
prevedere,  to  foresee. 


Present  Subjunctive. 

vediamo  (veggiamo) 

vedete 

vedono  (veggono,  veggiono) 

provvedere,6  to  provide. 
ravvedere,    to   improve,   re- 
form, [again. 
rivedere,    to    see,    examine 
travedere,  to  see  indistinctly. 


{Exercises  XLIV  and  XLV .) 

1  Cf.  Class  (6),  nascere,  114,  p.  190. 

2  Used  only  as  an  adjective.     Ex. :  era  splito,  "I  was  accustomed." 

3  Sometimes   shortened  into   /e'  in  familiar  conversation.     The 
imperative  singular  may  also  become  ve\ 

4  Past  participle  only  anteveduto. 
6  Only  the  infinitive  is  used. 

6  Future  and  conditional  provvedero,  provvederei. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  179 

(b)    Irregular    and  Defective  Verbs  of  the  Second   Conju- 
gation  in  '-ere. 

265.  As  we  have  seen  (263),  a  large  majority  of  these 
verbs  are  more  or  less  irregular.  For  e>sere,  which  is 
not  included  in  the  classification  below,  see  74. 

I. 

Verbs  forming  their  past  participle  in  -so,  preterite 
in  -si : 

21.  Acc§ndere,  to  light,  acceso;    accesi.1 

Like  acc^ndere: 

riacc§ndere,  to  relight. 

22.  Algere,  to  be  cold.    Preterite  alsi.    Defective.    Rare. 

23.  Alludere,  to  allude,  alluso;   allusi. 

Like  alludere: 

colludere,  to  play  into  some-      eludere,  to  elude. 

one's  hands.  ludere,2  to  play. 

deludere,  to  delude. 

24.  App§ndere,  to  hang,  appeso;    appesi. 
Like  app^ndere: 

dip§ndere,  to  depend.  vilip§ndere,  to  vilify. 

imp^ndere,  to  hand.  sosp^ndere,  to  suspend.3 

25.  Ardere,  to  burn,  arso;   arsi,  ardr§  or  arder^. 

26.  Arnjgere,  to  add,  arroso  or  arrgto;  arrgsi.  Has  no 
subjunctive  nor  imperative.  Only  arrgge,  pres.  ind.,  and 
arrgse  used,  and  they  rarely. 

27.  Assidere,  to  besiege,  assiso;     assisi.     Rare. 

28.  Avellere,  to  uproot,  avulso;  avulse.  Defective. 
Rare. 

1  All  parts  not  given  are  either  regular  or  to  be  formed  after  the 
models  (pp.  117  and  118).     So:    accesi,  accendesti.  etc. 

2  This,  the  primitive  of  the  group,  is  rarely  used. 

3  The  primitive  p^ndere  is  regular. 


180  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR 

29.  Chiudere,  to  close,  chiuso;   chiusi. 
Like  chiudere: 

accludere,  to  enclose.  includere,  to  include. 

concludere,  to  conclude.  precludere,  to  preclude. 

escludere,  to  exclude. 

30.  Collidere,  to  collide,  colliso;    collisi.     Rare. 

31.  Conquidere,  to  conquer,  conquiso;   conquisi.      Rare. 

32.  Contendere,  to  bruise,  contuse- ;   contusi. 

33.  Correre,  to  run,  corso;    corsi. 
Like  correre. 

■ 

accorrere,  to  run  in  haste,  percorrere,  to  pass   rapidly, 
concorrere,  to  flock,  to  com-         run  through. 

pete.  ricorrere,  to  have  recourse  to. 

discorrere,  to  discourse.  soccorrere,  to  succor. 

incorrere,  to  incur.  scorrere,  to  pass  away. 

occorrere,  to  happen.  trascorrere,  to  run  over. 

34.  Decidere,  to  decide,  deciso;   decisi. 

Like  decidere: 

circoncidere,  to  cut  round.         precidere,  to  cut  off. 
coincidere,1  to  coincide.  recidere,  to  cut. 

incidere,  to  cut  into. 

35.  Dif§ndere,  to  defend,  difeso;   difesi. 

Like  dif  §ndere : 

ofr^ndere,  to  offend. 

36.  Dividere,  to  divide,  diviso;   divisi. 

37.  Elidere,  to  elide,  eliso;  elisi  or  elidei. 

38.  Esp^llere,  to  expel,  espulso;  espulsi. 

Like  esp§llere: 

comp^llere,  to  compel.2  rep^'llere,  to  repel. 

imp§llere,  to  impel. 

39.  Esplgdere,  to  explode,  esplc;So;    esplgsi. 

1  Also  regular.  2  Rare. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  181 

40.  Evadere,  to  evade,  evaso;    evasi. 

Like  evadere: 

invadere,  to  invade. 

41.  Fondere,  to  melt,  fuso  (fonduto) ;   fusi  (fondei). 

Like  fondere: 

confdndere,1  to  confound. 

42.  Imm^rgere,  to  immerse,  imme.rso;   imme.rsi. 
Like  imm§rgere: 

m§'rgere,2  to  plunge. 

43.  Intridere,  to  dilute,  intriso  (intrito) ;   intrisi. 

44.  Intrudere,  to  intrude,  intruso;   intrusi. 

45.  L§dere,  to  hurt,  offend,  l§so;    l§si.     Rare. 

46.  Molcere,  to  soothe.     Pret.  mulse.     Defective.     Rare. 

47.  Mgrdere,  to  bite,  mcjrso;  mcjrsi. 

Like  mgrdere: 

rimgrdere,  to  grieve. 

48.  P§rdere,    to    lose,    p§rso    (oftener    perduto) ;     p§rsi 
(oftener  perdei  or  perd§tti). 

49.  Pr§ndere,  to  take,  preso;   presi. 

Like  prgndere: 

appre*ndere,  to  learn.  riprgndere,  to  retake. 

compr§ndere,  to  comprehend.     sorpr§ndere,  to  surprise. 

50.  Radere,  to  shave,  raso;  rasi. 

Like  radere : 

sorradere,  to  graze. 

51.  R^ndere,  to  render,  reso  (renduto) ;  resi  (rendei,  ren- 
detti). 

Like  r§ndere: 

arrg'ndere,  to  yield,  surrender. 

1  Which  does  not  have  the  weak  forms  exhibited  by  its  primitive. 
3  This,  the  primitive,  is  rarely  used. 


1 82  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR 

52.  Ridere,  to  laugh,  riso;   risi. 
Like  ridere: 

arridere,  to  smile  upon,  to  favor. 
sorridere,  to  smile. 

53.  Rodere,  to  gnaw,  roso;    rosi. 

Like  rodere : 

corrddere,  to  corrode. 

54.  Scendere  (discendere1),  to  descend,  sceso;   scesi. 

Like  scendere: 

ascendere,  to  ascend. 

55.  Sparge  re,  to  strew,  sparso  (sparto,  poetical);    sparsi. 

Like  spargere: 

cospargere,  to  sprinkle. 

56.  Sp§ndere,  to  spend,  speso;   spesi. 

57.  Sp§rgere,  to  scatter,  sperso;   spersi.     Rare. 

Like  spargere : 

asp§rgere,    )  ^        -nkle  disp§rgere,  to  disperse. 

cospargere,  )         ^ 

58.  T§ndere,  to  extend,  teso;  tesi.2 

Like  t§ndere : 

attgndere,  to  attend,  wait.  ost§'ndere,  to  show. 

contendere,  to  contest.  st^ndere  (dist§ndere) ,  to  ex- 

intgndere,  to  understand.  tend. 

59.  T§'rgere,  to  wipe,  t§rso;  tersi.     Rare. 

Like  t^rgere  : 

ast§rgere,  to  absterge.     Rare. 

60.  Uccidere,  to  kill,  ucciso;   uccisi. 

Like  uccidere: 

ancidere,  to  kill.     Rare. 

1  Discendere  is  the  older  form  of  scendere. 

2  This  is  the  transitive  verb ;  the  intransitive  is  regular,  but  has 
no  past  participle. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  183 


II. 


Past  participle  in  -sso,  preterite  in  -si: 

61.  Mettere,  to  put,  messo;   misi  (messi). 

Like  mettere: 

ammettere,  to  admit.  premettere,  to  premise. 

commettere,  to  commit.  promettere,  to  promise. 

compromettere,   to  compro-  rimettere,  to  remit. 

mise.  scommettere,  to  wager, 

framm^ttere,  to  interpose.  smettere      (dismettere),     to 
manomettere,  to  lay  hands  quit. 

upon.  sottomettere,  to  submit. 

permettere,  to  permit.  trasmettere,  to  transmit. 

III. 

Past  participle  in  -sso,  preterite  in  -ssi: 

62.  Ann^ttere,  to  annex,  annesso;   ann§ssi. 

Like  ann^ttere: 

conn§ttere,    to    connect.      Has    also    connettuto, 
connettei.      Rare. 

63.  C§dere,  to  yield,  ceduto  or  c§sso;    cedei  or  c^ssi.1 

Like  c§dere: 

conc§dere,  to  concede.1  succ§dere,  to  succeed.1 

interc§'dere,  to  intercede. 

64.  Comprimere,  to  press,  compre.sso;   compre,ssi. 

Like  comprimere  2 : 

deprimere,    to    depress,  de-      opprimere,  to  oppress, 
preciate.  reprimere,  to  repress. 

esprimere,  to  express.  sopprimere,  to  suppress. 

imprimere,  to  impress. 

1  Generally  a  weak  verb  in  modern  Italian. 

2  The  primitive  primere    (oftener  prf  mere)   is  regular,  although 
pre,sso  instead  of  premuto  exists. 


ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

:     Ksctitat    "      .  -  iiscuaBO;   jjmhhm 

Like  dis:_:e:f 

coz:_:r:r   -  past  participle  concoaN) 

incutrrr   -     inspire   mfnse. 

66    Fendere.  :;   split,  fenduto        :e=5o:    fendei    fendftti 
Eessi 

--     Figgere    figere  .  t:  fix,  fisso  w  fitto:   fissi    fisi  . 
[ike  tljggere: 

5:~:i£rre   -        ::vt    hide  me'sseU 
-     Fiertere.  tc  bend,  Hesse      rlessi. 
Like  ::"::: 
genufl$ttere    tc   kneel      Rare 
rif.r::r:r   to  reflect     Alsc  reflettuto  an  1  riflettei.: 
69.  Influere    be   influence,  influsso :    infioss  • 
-:    Mgvere    muovere     to  mcve.  movendo.  mosso:  moss. 
Like  in  u  overe 
comm  u  overe    be   affect  rim  u  overe.  :o  remove. 

prom  u  overe   -       -   mote.  s:mm  o  overe.  fee  ?::r  up. 

-:     Scindere    -  -    sdsBQ      scindei  .     s::?s. 

-:     S;::e:e    scuotere     :     5  ....-.-.    BCfSSO     scossi. 
BC  D  ::ere 
perc  u  otere ,  tc   sti  rise  u  otere    |  a  shake  (up) . 

-:     Suggere.    bo  sock  ~        rticiple.     Preterite 

boss       snggei  re 

s_:: :  sugga.  etc 

5_£r.    --■:: 

IV. 
-         rl  ".  -to      ret  in  -si: 

-_     A;:orgere     accorgersi  ,to  pes  accorto:  accgrsi. 

accorgerr 

,;:    rgere    to  pe~         e. 
-I.  weak  when    t  means  Strang 

gh\         CI  36,3 

lird  conjugation,  is  oft ener  used. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 

75.  Ass^lvere,  to  absolve,  assglto   or  assoluto;     assolvei, 
assolvetti  or  assglsi.1 

Like  ass^lvere : 

ris^lvere.  to  melt,  dissolve. 

76.  Ass^rbere.  to  absorb,  ass9rto;    ass9rsi.     Rare. 

77.  Assumere,  to  assume,  assunto.    assunsi. 

Like  assumere: 

consumere,  to  consume.  presumere,  to  presume. 

78.  Cingere     (cignere),    to    gird,    cinto .     cinsi.    cinger^ 
(cignerj). 

Present  Indicative.  Present    Subjunctive. 

cingo  (cigno)  cingiamo  (cigniamo>  cinga  (eigne  cingiamo  (cigniamo) 
cingi    (cigni)    cingete  (cigneto  cingiate  'cigniate 

cinge  (eigne)  cingono  (cignono)  cingano  (cignano; 

Imperative. 
cingi  (cigni)     cingete  (cignete) 

Like  cingere : 

giungere   (giugnere),   to   ar-  pungere  (pugnere),  to  prick, 

rive,  giunto.   giunsi.  punto:   punsi. 

raggiungere,  to  rejoice.  sp^'gnere  ^spengere),2  to  ex- 
mugnere  (mungere),  to  milk,  tinguish,  sp§nto;   spensi. 

munto:   munsi.  spingere  (Spignere),  to  push, 

piangere  (piagnere),  to  weep,  stringere       (strignere),       to 

pianto.   piansi.  brush,   stretto   or  strinto; 

compiangere,  to  bewail.  strinsi.3 

rimpiangere,  to  regret.  tingere  itignere),  to  dve. 

pingere  (pignere),  to  paint.  lignere   (lingere),  to  anoint, 
dipingere      (dipignere),      to  unto;    unsi. 

paint. 

1  The  strong  forms  are  poetical.     For  riscUvere,  "to  determine  ", 
cf.  solvere,  122,  p.  191. 

2  The  forms  with  gn  are,  however,  quite  as  common  as  those  with 

ng 

3  This  differs   from   cingere   only  in   having  the   past   participle 
stretto. 


1 86  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

79.  Cggliere    (cgrre),   to   gather,   cogli§ndo,   cglto,   cglsi, 
coglierg  (corrg). 

Present    Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

c9lgo  (coglio)  cogliamo  (colghiamo)  C9lga  (c9glia)   cogliamo    (colghi- 
C9gli  cogliete  cogliate         [amo) 

C9glie  c9lgono  (c9gliono)  C9lgano  (c9gliano) 

Imperative  like  present  indicative. 

Like  cggliere: 

accggliere,   to  receive,   wel-      raccggliere,  to  collect. 

come.  sciggliere  (scigrre,    asciggli- 

prosciggliere,  to  absolve.  ere,  disciggliere) ,  to  untie. 

Also  with  change  of  vowel  (e  for  o  throughout) : 
prescegliere,   to   choose   be-       scegliere  (scerre) ,  to  choose. 

fore,  select  with  care.  trascegliere,  to  select. 

And 
stggliere  (stgrre,  distggliere) 1,       tggliere  (tgrre) ,  to  take,  take 

to  dissolve,  divert  from.  away. 

80.  Cglere,  to  revere,  colto   or  culto.     Defective.     Only 
present  indicative  C9I0  and  cgle  in  use.     Rare. 

81.  Distinguere,  to  distinguish,  distinto;   distinsi. 

Like  distinguere: 

estinguere,  to  extinguish. 

82.  JJrgere,  to  erect,  §rto;   §rsi.     Rare. 

83.  Fingere,  to  feign,  finto;   finsi. 

84.  Frangere  (fragnere),  to  break,  franto;   fransi. 

Like  frangere: 

infrangere,  to  crush,  infringe. 

85.  Fulgere,  to  shine.     No  present  participle.     Preterite 
fulsi.     Rare. 

Like  fulgere: 

rifulgere,   to   shine.       Also   rare,    defective,    and 
poetical. 

1  Here,  as  always,  the  present  participle  is  formed  from  the  un- 
contractcd  infinitive:    scegli^ndo,  togliendo,  etc. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS.  187 

86.  P6rgere,  to  offer,  pQrto;  pgrsi. 

Like  p^rgere : 

sp^rgere,  to  project,  stretch  out. 

87.  Redimere,  to  redeem,    red§nto;    red§nsi  fredimei). 

88.  Scicjlvere  (asci^lvere),  to  breakfast,  scicjlto;   sci9lsi  or 
sciolvetti.     Rare. 

■ 

89.  Soffolcere  (soffolgere) ,  to  support,    soffolto;    soffolse. 
Defective.     Rare. 

90.  Sorgere  (assorgere,  surgere),  to  rise,  sorto;    sorsi. 

Like  sorgere: 

risorgere,  to  rise  again. 

91.  Spandere,  to  spill,  spanto  (spaso,  spasso) ;  spandei  or 
spand^tti,  spasi,  spansi. 

92.  Sv§llere    (disvellere,    sv§gliere,    sv§rre),    to    uproot, 
sv§lto;   sv§lsi;    sveller9  (sverr9  or  svelger^). 

Present    Indicative. 

sv§llo  or  svflgo        svelliamo  (svelgiamo) 

svelli  (svelgi)  svellete 

sv§lle  (svelge)  svfllono  or  sv^lgono 

Present  Subjunctive. 

sv$lla  or  svelga        svelliamo  (svelgiamo) 

svelliate  (svelgiate) 
sv^llano  or  svflgano 

Like  sv^'llere : 

v§llere  (v§rre),  to  tear  up.     (This  is  the  primitive, 
but  not  all  the  forms  given  above  are  in  use.) 

div^'gliere  (div^llere)  (div§rre),  to  pull  up. 

93.  Tjjrcere,  to  twist,  t9rto;   t9rsi. 
Like  t^rcere  : 

att^rcere,  to  twist. 
cont^rcere,  to  contort. 

rit^rcere,  to  twist  back,  twist  again. 

st^rcere  (dist^rcere) ,  to  writhe. 

94.  Vincere,  to  conquer,  vinto;   vinsi. 

Like  vincere: 
avvincere,  to  clasp.  convincere,  to  convince. 


1 88  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

95-  V^lgere  or  v(Jlvere,  to  turn,  vglto;   vglsi. 
Like  v^lgere  : 
awglgere     (awglvere),     to      invglgere,  to  wrap  up. 

wrap.  rivglgere,  to  turn,  revolve. 

devglvere,  to  devolve  (past      sconvglgere,  to  overturn, 
participle  devoluto).  svglgere,  to  unfold. 

V. 

Past  participle  in  -tto^  preterite  in  -ssi: 

96.  Affligere,  to  afflict,  affiitto;   afflissi. 

97.  Condurre,  to  conduct,  conduc§ndo,  condotto;    con- 

dussi. 

Like  condurre: 

addurre,  to  bring,  allege.  introdurre,  to  introduce. 

dedurre,  to  deduct   (dedotto  produrre,  to  produce. 

or  dedutto).  ridurre,  to  reduce. 

ducere1,  to  conduct.  sedurre,  to  seduce. 

indurre,  to  induce.  tradurre,  to  translate. 

98.  Corrgggere,  to  correct,  corr§tto;   corr§ssi. 
Like  correjggere: 

dirigere,  to  direct.  rgggere  2,  to  govern. 

erigere,  to  erect. 

99.  Cgcere  (cugcere),  to  cook,  cocgndo,  cgtto;    cgssi.3 

100.  Friggere,  to  fry,  fritto;   frissi. 

1 01.  Lgggere,  to  read,  lgtto;   lgssi.4 
Like  lgggere: 

elgggere,  to  elect. 

prediligere,  to  have  a  partiality  for. 

102.  Lucere,  to  shine.  Defective.  No  past  participle. 
Preterite  lusse.     Rare. 

Like  lucere: 

rilticere,  to  shine.     Pret.  rilussi  or  rilucei. 

1  This,  the  primitive,  is  used  only  in  poetry.  The  infinitive  is 
not  often  contracted  into  durre.  Dutto,  "duct",  is  etymologically 
its  past  participle. 

2  The  primitive,  but  much  less  used  than  corrfggere. 
8Cf.7o(3).  4Cf.  70. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  189 

103.  Negligere,  to  neglect,  negl§tto;    negl^ssi. 

104.  Prot^ggere,  to  protect,  prot§tto;    protgssi. 

105.  Scrivere,  to  write,  scritto;   scrissi. 
Like  scrivere: 

ascrivere,  to  ascribe,   [scribe.  prescrivere,  to  prescribe. 

circoscrivere,      to      circum-  proscrivere,  to  proscribe. 

descrivere,  to  describe.  sottoscrivere,  to  subscribe. 

inscrfvere,  to  inscribe.  trascrfvere,  to  transcribe. 

106.  Struggere  (distruggere) ,  to  destroy,  dissolve,  strutto; 
strussi. 

107.  Trarre    (traere),   to   draw,   tra§ndo,   tratto;    trassi, 
trarr§. 

Like  trarre: 

attrarre,  to  attract.  estrarre,  to  extract. 

contrarre,  to  contract.  protrarre,  to  protract. 

detrarre,  to  detract.  ritrarre,  to  draw  back. 

distrarre,  to  divert  from.  sottrarre,  to  subtract. 

VI. 

Past  participle  in  -sto,  in  -si : 

108.  Chigdere,  to  ask,  chi§sto;   chie,si  or  chiedei. 
Like  chi^dere: 

inchi§dere,  to  inquire.  rfe^^dere,  to  request. 

109.  Nascondere,  to  hide,  nascosto;   nascosi. 
Like  nascondere : 

■ 

ascondere  1,  to  hide, 
no.  Porre  (ponere) 2,  to  put,  pone,ndo,  posto;   posi. 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

pongo  poniamo  ponga  poniamo 

poni  ponete  poniate 

pone  pongono  pongano 

1  The  primitive,  but  less  used  than  nasc<3ndere. 

2  This,  the  uncontracted  form,  is  still  used. 


190  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

Like  porre  : 
anteporre,  to  prefer.  intraporre,  to  interpose. 

apporre  (apponere),  to  affix,      opporre,  to  oppose. 

impute.  posporre,  to  postpone. 

disporre,  to  dispose.  preporre,  to  prefer. 

esporre    (esponere,    sporre),      riporre,  to  replace. 

to  expound.  sopporre,  to  place  under. 

imporre,  to  impose.  supporre,  to  suppose, 

in.  Rispondere,  to  respond,  risposto;   risposi. 
Like  rispondere: 

corrispondere,  to  correspond. 

VII. 
Verbs  showing  reduplication  in  the  preterite. 

(a)  Preterite  in  -bbi,  past  participle  regular : 

112.  Condscere,   to   know    (by  the   senses),   conosciuto; 
conobbi. 

Like  condscere: 
ricondscere,  to  recognize. 
sconpscere  (discondscere) ,  not  to  know. 

113.  Crescere,  to  grow,  cresciuto;  crebbi. 
Like  crescere: 

■ 

accrescere,  to  increase.  increscere,     ) 

,  .  .  .    y  to  be  sorry. 

decrescere,  to  decrease.  rincrescere1,  )  J 

(b)  Past  participle  regular  or  in  -to,  preterite  in  -cqui2: 

114.  Nascere,  to  be  born,  nato;  nacqui. 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive.  Preterite. 

nasco  nasca,  etc.  nacqui 

nasci,  etc.  nacesti,  etc. 

115.  N^cere  (nugcere),  to  harm,  nociuto;    nocqui. 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

nuQco  or  mjiccio  nociamo  nuoca  or  n^ccia    nociamo 

nu9ci                      nocete        [ciono  "                 nociate      [ciano 

nu9ce                      nu9cono  or  119c-  "                  nu^cano  or  n9c- 

(c)  Past  participle  in  -tto,  preterite  in  -ppi : 

1  Impersonal.  2  Cf.  giacere,  18,  p.  178. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  191 

116.  Rompere,  to  break,  rotto;   ruppi. 
Like  rompere: 

corrompere,  to  corrupt.  interrompere,  to  interrupt. 

dirompere,  to  break,  bruise.        irrompere,  to  break  in. 
erompere,  to  break  forth.  prorompere,  to  burst  forth. 

(d)  Past  participle  regular,  preterite  in  -wi : 

117.  Bere   (bevere),  to  drink,  bev§ndo;    bevuto  (beuto); 
bewi  (bevei  or  bev^tti). 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

bevo  or  beo       beviamo  or  beiamo  beva  or  bea  be(v)iamo 

bevi  or  bei        bevete      or  beete  be(v)iate 

beve  or  bee       bevono    or  beono  be(v)ano 

118.  Pi^vere,  to  rain,  piovuto,  pigvve.     Impersonal. 

VIII. 

Verbs  irregular  in  the  past  participle  only: 

119.  Assistere,  to  be  present,  to  assist,  assistito. 
Like  assistere1: 

consistere,  to  consist.  persistere,  to  perish. 

desistere,  to  desist.  resistere,  to  resist. 

esistere,  to  exist.  sussistere,  to  subsist. 

insistere,  to  insist. 

120.  Concepere,  to  conceive,  conc§tto. 
Like  concepere 2  : 

percepere,  to  perceive. 

121.  Esigere,  to  exact,  esatto. 
Like  esigere: 

transigere,  to  transact. 

122.  Solvere,  to  undo,  soluto. 
Like  solvere: 

diss^lvere,  to  dissolve.  risglvere,  to  determine. 

1  These  verbs  are  irregular  only  in  having  the  participial  form 
proper  to  the  -ire  conjugation. 

2  Concepire,  percepire,  are  the  verbs  commonly  used. 


192  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

IX. 

123.  Vivere,   to   live,   vissuto    (vivuto),   vissi,  viver§  or 
vivrg.    • 

Like  vivere : 

convivere,  to  live  together, "eat  or  drink  together. 
ri vivere,  to  revive. 

Irregular  Verbs  of  the  Third  Conjugation.1 

I. 

(a)  Verbs  irregular  in  the  present  tenses  but  having 
the  regular  weak  preterite: 

124.  Cucire,  to  sew,  cucito,  cucii. 

Present  indicative  cucio  or  cucisco,  etc.     Present  sub- 
junctive cticia  or  cucisca,  etc.     (This  verb  inserts  i  before 
a  and  o,  but  not  before  e  and  i.) 
Like  cucire  : 

sdrucire  (sdruscire)  or  scucire,  to  rip. 

125.  Empire  or  §mpiere,  to  fill,  empi§ndo,  empito,  empii. 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

fmpio  (empisco)  empiamo  fmpia  empiamo 

§mpi     (empisci)  empite  empiate 

fmpie  (empisce)  fmpiono  (empiscono)  ^mpiano 

These  irregular  forms  are  from  §mpiere. 
Like  empire: 

adempire  (ad§'mpiere),  to  accomplish.  (This  verb 
has  also  the  past  participle  adempiuto.) 

compire  (cgmpiere),  to  perfect.  (Past  participle 
compiuto.     Cdmpito  is  used  as  an  adjective.) 

1  For  verbs  which  do  not  show,  or  do  not  always  show,  the  -isco 
forms  see  71. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  193 

126.  Salire,  to  ascend,  salito,  salii  or  salsi. 

.     .  Present   Indicative. 
salgo  (salisco)  saliamo  (sagliamo,  salghiamo) 

sali      (salisci)  salite 

sale     (salisce)  salgono  (saliscono) 

Present  Subjunctive. 

saiga  (salisca)  saliamo  (sagliamo,  salghiamo) 

sagliate 
sale     (salisce)  salgano  (saliscano) 

Like  salire: 
assaiire,  to  assail.  risalire,  to  reascend. 

127.  Seguire,  to  follow,  seguito,  seguii. 

The  stem  e  may  diphthong  under  the  accent :   s§guo 
or  si^'guo,  etc. 

128.  Udire,  to  hear,  udito,  udii,  udh-9,  or  udr§. 

Present    Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 
odo  udiamo  oda  udiamo 

odi  udite  "    udiate 

ode  9dono  "    9dano 

129.  Uscire  (escire),  to  go  out,  uscito,  uscii.    - 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

fsco  usciamo  esca  usciamo 

esci   uscite  "     usciate 

§sci  fscono  "     fscano 

Like  uscire: 

riuscire,  to  succeed,  to  turn  out. 

(b)  Verbs  irregular  in  the  present  and  preterite : 

130.  Sparire,  to  disappear,  sparito,  sparii  or  sparvi. 

Present    Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

spaio  or  sparisco    spariamo  spaia  or  sparisca  spariamo  ' 

spari  ot  sparisci      sparite  [riscono     "  spariate         [cano 

spare  or  sparisce    spaiono  or  spa-     "  spaiano  or  sparis- 

Like  sparire: 

apparire,  to  appear,  apparito  comparire,  to  appear,  com- 
er apparso,  apparvi,  ap-  parso  or  comparito,  com- 
parsi,  apparii.  parsi,  comparvi,  comparii. 


194 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


131.  Venire,  to  come,  venuto,  venni,  verr^. 


Present  Indicative. 
vengo  (vegno)      veniamo  (ven- 

ghiamo) 
vieni  venite 

viene  vfngono  (veg- 

nono) 

Like  venire  : 

avvenire,  to  happen. 
convenire,  to  agree,     [come. 
divenire    (devenire),   to    be- 
intervenire,  to  intervene. 
invenire,  to  find  out. 


Present  Subjunctive. 

venga  (vegna)     veniamo    (ven- 

ghiamo) 

veniate 

vfngano  (vfg- 
nano) 


4« 


prevenire,  to  hinder. 
provenire     (provvenire) , 

proceed  from. 
sovvenire,  to  relieve. 
svenire,  to  faint. 


to 


(c)  Verbs  irregular  in  the  present  and  past  participle, 
or  present,  past  participle,  and  preterite : 

132.  Morire,  to  die,  mQrto;   morii,  morrg  or  morh-9. 

Present  Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

mugio  (muoro) *  moriamo  or  muo-  muQia  (muora)  moriamo  or  muo- 

iamo  iamo 

muori  or  muoi      morite  "  muoiate 

muore  mugiono  (mug-  "  mugiano  (muo- 

rono)  rano) 

133.  Dire,  to  say,  dice,ndo,  detto;    dissi,  dirg. 

Present  Indicative.  Imperative. 

dico  diciamo 

dici  dite  di'  dite 

dice  dicono 

Like  dire : 

addire,  to  assign. 

benedire      (benedicere),     to 

bless. 

disdire  (sdire) ,  to  deny. 


Present  Subjunctive. 

dica  diciamo 

diciate 
dicano 


indire,  to  announce. 
maledire,  to  curse. 
predire,  to  predict. 
ridire,2  to  repeat. 


1  In  all  forms  where  the  diphthong  uo  occurs  o  is  sometimes  found 
replacing  it. 

2  Redire,    "to  return",   (poetical,)  has  nothing  to  do  with  dire. 
Cf.  153,  P-  ICA 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  195 

II. 

Verbs  regular  in  the  present  tenses: 

134.  Aprire,  to  open,  ap§rto;    aprii  or  ap§rsi. 

135.  Convertire,  to.  convert,  convertito  or  convfrso;  con- 
verts or  conv§rsi. 

136.  Coprire,  to  cover,  cope,rto;   coprii  or  cop§rsi. 
Like  coprire : 

scoprire,  to  discover. 

137.  Costruire    (construire),    to    construct,    co(n)struito 
or  co(n)strutto;   co(n)strussi  or  co(n)struii. 

This  verb  has  the  -isco  forms  in  the  present. 
Like  costruire: 

istruire,  to  instruct. 

138.  Digerire,  to  digest,  digerito  or  dig§sto;   digerii. 
Present  digerisco,  etc. 

139.  Esaurire,  to  exhaust,  esaurito  or  esausto;    esaurii. 
Present  esaurisco,  etc. 

140.  Offrire  (offerire),  to  offer,  offerto;   offrii  or  offersi. 
Present  §ffro  or  offrisco,  etc. 

Like  offrire: 

soffrire  (sofferire),  to  suffer.1 

141.  Orire,  to  be  born,  9rto.     Defective.     Rare. 
Seppellire    (sepellire),    to   bury,    sepolto   or   sep(p)ellito; 

sep(p)ellii. 

Present  sep(p)ellisco,  etc. 

DEFECTIVE    VERBS. 

NOT    INCLUDED    IN    ABOVE    LIST. 

143.  Acquisire,  to  acquire.     Only  past  participle  acqui- 
sito  is  found. 

144.  Capere,    to    comprehend.       Only    cape    and    capia 

found.     Capire  is  commonly  used  instead. 

1  Conferire,  differire,  inferire,  and  trasferire  have  the  regular  past 
participle. 


196 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


145.  Comp§tere,  to  compete.     No  past  participle.    Other- 
wise regular. 

146.  Conv^rgere,     to     converge.      No    past    participle. 
Otherwise  regular. 

147.  Delinquere,  to  be  delinquent.       No  past  participle. 
Otherwise  regular.     Poetical. 

148.  Div§rgere,  to  diverge.     No  past  participle.     Other- 
wise regular. 

149.  Estgllere,  to  extol.     Only  estglle  found. 

150.  F§'rvere,  to  be  hot.     No  past  participle.     Used  only 
in  the  third  person. 

151.  Fi§dere,  to  wound.     No  past  participle.    Otherwise 
regular.     Poetical.     Rare. 

152.  Gire,  to  go,  gito. 

Present  Indicative.  Imperfect.  Imperative.       Present  Subjunctive. 

giamo  giva  (gia) ,  etc.  giamo 

gite  gite  giate 

Future     and     conditional     gir$,     gir§i,     etc.,     regular. 

Poetical. 


153.  Ire,  to  go,  ito. 

Present  Indicative.         Imperfect. 

Imperative. 

Imperfect  Subjui 

iva  ivamo 

ite                   ivi 

ite 

iste 

iva 

isse  issero 

Preterite  Indicative. 

Future. 

iremo 

isti     iste 

irete 
iranno 

Like  ire: 

redire,  to  return. 

154.  Illanguidire,   to   grow   faint.     No   past    participle. 
Otherwise  regular. 

155.  Lambire,  to  lick.      No  past  participle.      Used  only 
in  the  third  person. 

156.  Lecere  (licere),  to  be  lawful,  lecito  (licito). 

Present  Indicative 
lece  (lice) 

No  other  parts  found.     Poetical. 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS.  197 

157.  Olire,   to  smell.     Only  imperfect   indicative   oliva 
and  olivano  used. 

158.  Perire,  to  perish.     No  present  participle.     Other- 
wise regular. 

159.  Priidere,  to  itch.     No  past  participle.     Used  only 
in  the  third  person. 

160.  Ri§dere,  to  return. 

Present    Indicative.  Present  Subjunctive. 

ri§do 
ri§di 
ri§de  rifdono  ri§da  rifdano  (Poet.) 

161.  Stridere,  to  shriek.     No  past  participle.     Otherwise 
regular. 

162.  Tangere,  to  touch.     Has  only  tange. 

163.  Urgere,  to  urge.     Has  only  urge,  urgeva,  urgesse. 

164.  V§rtere,  to  turn.     Regular,  but  used  only  in  the 
indicative  present  and  imperfect. 

Like  v§rtere: 

controv§rtere,  to  controvert. 

165.  Vigere,  to  be  in  force,  to  nourish.     No  past  parti- 
ciple.    Used  only  in  the  third  person. 


INDEX  OF  IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 


Verbs  conjugated  in  the  same  manner  as  some  other  verb  are  in 
this  index  set  in  from  the  margin.  The  commoner  compound 
verbs  are  so  placed.  Rare  compounds,  obsolete  and  very  unusual 
verbs,  are  not  included  here. 


Accadere,  8 
Accfndere,  21 

Accludere,  29 

Acc^gliere,  79 
Acc^rgere,  74 

Accdrrere,  33 

Accrescere,  113 
Acquisire,  143 

Addire,  133 

Addurre,  97 

Ad§mpiere  (adempire),  125 

Affarsi,  3 
Affliggere,  96 
Algere,  22 
Alludere,  23 

Ammettere,  61 

Ancidere,  60 
Andare,  1 
Ann§ttere,  62 

Anteporre,  no 

Antivedere,  20 

Apparire,  130 

Appartenere,  10 
App^ndere,  24 

Apporre,  1 10 

Apprfndere,  49 
Aprire,  134 
Ardere,  25 

Arr^ndere,  51 

Arridere,  53 


Arr^gere,  26 

Ascendere,  54 
AsciQgliere,  79 
Asciplvere,  88 
Ascdndere,  109 
Ascrivere,  105 
Aspfrgere,  57 
Assalire,  126 

Assidere,  27 

Assistere,  119 

Ass^lvere,  75 

Ass^rbere,  76 

Assuefarsi,  3 

Assumere,  77 

Astfrgere,  59 
Att^ndere,  58 
Attenersi,  10 
Att9rcere,  93 
Attrarre,  107 

Avfllere,  28 

Avere,  cf.  §  74 

Avvedersi,  20 
Avvenire,  133 
Avvincere,  94 
Avv9lgere,  95 

Benedire,  133 
Bere  (bevere),  117 

Cadere,  8 


198 


INDEX   OF   IRREGULAR   AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS.    1 99 


Calere,  12 
Capere,  144 
Cfdere,  63 
Chifdere,  10S 
Chiudere,  29 
Cignere  (cingere),  78 

Circoncidere,  34 

Circoscrivere,  105 
C9cere  (cupcere),  99 
C9gliere  (c9rre),  79 

Coincidere,  34 
Cglere,  80 
Collidere,  30 

Colludere,  23 

Commettere,  61 

Comm(u)9vere,  70 

Comparire,  130 

Compfllere,  38 
Comp^tere,  145 

Compiangere,  78 

Compr§ndere,  49 
Comprimere,  64 

Compromettere,  61 

Concfdere,  63 

Concepere,  120 

Concludere,  29 

Concorrere,  ^^ 

Concutere,  65 

Condolere,  13 
Condurre,  97 

Confarsi,  3 

Confondere,  41 

Connfttere,  62 
Conoscere,  112 
Conquidere,  31 
Construire  (costruire) ,  119 

Consumere,  77 

Contendere,  58 

Contenere,  10 

Cont9rcere,  93 

Contraffare,  3 

Contrarre,  107 


Controv^rtere,  163 
Contendere,  32 

Convenire,  131 
Convertire,  135 

Convincere,  04 
Coprire  (cuoprire),  136 
C9rre  (c9gliere) ,  79 
Corr^ggere,  98 
Correre,  33 

Corrispondere,  1 1 1 

Corrodere,  53 

Corrompere,  1 16 
Conv^rgere.  146 

Cospargere,  57 

Cospfrgere,  57 
Crescere,  114 
Cucire,  124 

Dare,  2 

Decadere,  8 
Decidere,  34 

Decrescere,  1 13 

Dedurr:,,  97 
Delinquere,  147 

Deludere,  23 

Deprimere,  64 

Descrivere,  105 

Desistere,  1 19 

Detrarre,  107 

Dev9lvere,  95 
Diffndere,  35 
Digerire,  138 

Dip^ndere,  24 

Dipingere,  78 
Dire,  133 

Dirigere,  98 

Discendere  (scendere") ,  54 

Disci9gliere  (sci9gliere) ,  79 

Disconoscere     (sconoscere), 
112 

Discorrere,  ^^ 
Discutere,  65 


200 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


Disdire,  133 

Disfare,  3 

Dismettere  (smettere),  61 

Dispfrgere,  57 

Disporre,  no 

Disrompere,  116 

Dissplvere,  122 

Dissuadere,  14 

Distare,  4 

Distfndere,  58 
Distinguere,  81 

Distpgliere  (distprre),  79 

Distprcere,  93 

Distrarre,  107 

Distruggere,  106 

Disvfllere  (svfllere),  92 

Divedere,  20 

Divfgliere     (div^llere)     (di- 
v§rre),  92 

Di  venire,  131 
Divfrgere,  148 
Dividere,  36 
Dolere,  13 
Dovere,  5 

Dticere,  97 

Elfggere,  101 
Elidere,  37 

Eludere,  23 

Equivalere,  16 
]£rgere,  82 

Erigere,  98 

Er6mpere,  116 
Esaurire,  139 
Escire  (uscire),  130 

Escltidere,  29 
Esigere,  121 
Esistere,  120 
Esp§llere,  38 
Esplpdere,  39 

Esporre,  no 

Esprimere,  64 


Essere,  §  74 

Estinguere,  81 
Est<?llere  (estogliere) ,  149 

Estrarre,  107 
Evadere,  40 

Fare,  3 
F^ndere,  66 
F^rvere,  150 
Fifdere,  151 
Figgere  (figere),  67 
Fingere,  83 
Fl§ttere,  68 
Fdndere,  41 

Frammettere,  61 
Frangere,  84 
Friggere,  100 
Fdlgere,  85 

Genufl^ttere,  68 
Giacere,  18 
Gire,  152 

Giungere  (giugnere),  78 

Illanguidire,  154 

Illtidere,  23 
Imm^rgere,  42 

Impfllere,  38 

Impfndere,  24 

Imporre,  no 

Imprimere,  64 

Inchifdere,  108 

Incidere,  34 

IncMdere,  29 

Incdrrere,  33 

Increscere,  113 

Incutere,  65 

Indire,  133 

Indurre,  97 
Infliiere,  69 

Infrangere,  84 

Insistere,  119 


INDEX   OF   IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS.    201 


Inscrivere  (iscrivere),  105 

Instruire,  137 

Int§ndere,  58 

Intercfdere,  63 

Interrpmpere,  116 

Intervenire,  131 

Intrapprre,  no 

Intrattenere,  10 
Intridere,  43 

Introdurre,  97 
Intrudere,  44 

Invadere,  40 

Invalere,  16 

Invenire,  131 

Invplgere,  95 
Ire,  153 

Irrdmpere,  116 

Lambire,  155 
Lecere,  156 
L§dere,  45 
Lfggere,  101 

Liquefare,  3 
Lucere,  102 

Ludere,  23 

Maledire,  133 

Malfare,  3 

Manomettere,  61 

Mansuefare,  3 

Mantenere,  10 

M^rgere,  42 
Mettere,  61 
Mplcere,  46 
Mprdere,  47 
Morire,  132 
Mpvere  (mup vere) ,  70 

Mtingere  (mugnere),  78 

Nascere,  114 
Nascpndere,  109 
Negligere,  103 


N^cere  (nu^cere),  116 

Occdrrere,  33 

Offfndere,  35 
Offerire  (offrire),  140 
Olire,  157 

Oppprre,  1  to 

Opprimere,  64 
Orire,  141 

Ost^ndere,  58 

Ottenere,  10 

Parere,  17 
Percipere,  120 

Percprrere,  ^^ 

Percptere  (percuptere),  72 
Pfrdere,  48 
Perire,  158 

Permanere,  15 

Permettere,  61 

Persistere,  119 
Persuadere,  14 

Piacere,  18 

Piangere  (piagnere) ,  78 

Pingere  (pignere),  78 
Pip  vere,  119 
Pprgere,  86 
Porre  (ppnere),  no 

Pospprre,  1 10 

Possedere,  7 
Potere,  6 

Precidere,  34 

Precludere,  29 

Prediligere,  101 

Predire,  133 

Premettere,  61 
Pr§ndere,  49 

Pre  porre,  no 

Prescifgliere,  79 

Prescrivere,  105 

Presumere,  77 

Prevalere,  16 


202 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


Prevedere,  20 

Pre  venire,  131 

Produrre,  97 

Promettere,  61 

Prompvere  (promupvere),  70 

Prorpmpere,  116 

Proscipgliere,  79 

Proscrivere,  105 
Protpggere,  104 

Protrarre,  107 

Provenire  (prov venire) ,  131 

Provvedere,  20 
Prudere,  159 

Pungere  (pugnere),  78 

Raccpgliere,  79 
Radere,  50 

Raggiungere,  78 

Rattenere,  10 

Ravvedere,  20 

Recidere,  34 
Redimere,  87 

Redire,  153 

Rpggere,  98 
R^ndere,  51 

Reppllere,  38 

Reprimere,  64 

Resistere,  119 

Riaccpndere,  21 

Riandare,  1 

Ricadere,  8 

Richi^dere,  108 

Riconpscere,  112 

Ricprrere,  t,^ 

Ridare,  2 
Ridere,  52 

Ridire,  133 

Ridolere,  13 

Ridurre,  97 
Rifdere,  160 

Rifare,  3 

Riflfttere,  68 


Rifulgere,  85 

Rilucere,  102 
Rimanere,  15 

Rimettere,  61 

Rimordere,  47 

Rimpiangere,  78 

Rimpvere  (rimupvere),  70 

Rincrescere,  113 

Ripr^ndere,  49 

Riporre,  no 

Risalire,  126 

Riscuptere,  72 

Risedere,  7 

Risolvere,  75  and  126 

Risprgere,  90 
Risppndere,  in 

Ristare,  4 

Ritenere,  10 

Ritprcere,  93 

Ritrarre,  107 

Riuscire,  129 

Rivalere,  16 

Rivedere,  20 

Rivenire,  137 

Rivivere,  123 

Rivolere,  n 

Rivplgere,  95 
Rpdere,  53 
Rpmpere,  117 

Salire,  126 
Sapere,  9 

Scadere,  8 

Scfgliere  (scerre),  79 
Scendere,  54 
Scindere,  71 

Scipgliere  (sciprre),  79 
Sciplvere,  88 

Scommettere,  61 

Sconpscere,  112 

Sconvplgere,  95 

Scoprire,  137 


INDEX   OF   IRREGULAR  AND  DEFECTIVE  VERBS.    203 


Scprgere,  74 

Scprrere,  38 
Scrivere,  105 
Scptere  (scuptere),  72 

Sdare,  2 

Sdire,  134 

Sdrucire  (sdruscire),  124 
Sedere,  7 

Sedurre,  97 
Seguire,  127 
Sepellire  (seppellire),  142 

Smettere,  61 

Soccprrere,  33 

Soddisfare,  3 

Sofferire  (soffrire),  140 

Soffiggere,  67 
Soffplcere,  89 
Solere,  19 
Solvere,  126 

Somm(u)pvere,  70 

Soppprre,  no 

Sopprimere,  64 

Soprassedere,  7 

Soprastare,  4 
Sprgere,  90 

Sorpr^ndere,  49 

Sorradere,  50 

Sorridere,  52 

Sosp§ndere,  24 

Sostenere,  10 

Sottomettere,  61 

Sottoscrivere,  105 

Sottostare,  4 

Sottrarre,  107 

Sovrastare,  4 

Sovvenire,  131 
Spandere,  91 
Spargere,  55 
Sparire,  130 
Sp^gnere  (spfngere),  78 
Spandere,  56 


Spfrgere,  57 

Spignere  (spingere),  78 

Spprgere,  86 

Spprre,  no 
Stare,  4 

Stfndere,  58 

Stpgliere  (stprre),  79 

Stprcere,  93 

Stridere,  161 

Strignere  (stringere),  78 
Strilggere,  106 

Succfdere,  63 
Stiggere,  73 

Suppprre,  no 

Supprimere,  64 

Sussistere,  119 
Svfllere  (sv§gliere,  svfrre),  92 

Svenire,  131 

Svolere,  11 

Svplgere,  95 

Tacere,  18 
Tangere,  162 
Tfndere,  58 
Tenere,  10 
Tfrgere,  59 

Tignere  (tmgere),  78 

Tpgliere  (tprre),  79 
Tprcere,  93 

Tradurre,  97 

Transigere,  121 
Trarre  (traere),  107 

Trasandare,  1 

Trascegliere,  79 

Trascprrere,  33 

Trascrivere,  105 

Trasmettere,  61 

Trattenere,  10 

Travedere,  20 

Uccidere,  60 
Udire,  128 


204 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


Ugnere  (ungere),  78 
Urgere,  163 
Uscire,  129 

Valere,  16 
Vedere,  20 

V§llere  (v§rre),  92 
Venire,  132 


V§rtere,  164 
Vigere,  165 

Vilipfndere,  24 
Vincere,  94 
Vivere,  124 
Volere,  11 
V^lgere  (v^lvere),  95 


EXERCISES. 


EXERCISE  I. 

(For  drill  in  pronunciation.) 

I.  Vowels. 

i:  inni,  bibita,  indi,  minimo,  nimico;  e:  avere,  me,  e,  averemo, 
Hymns,  draught,  thence,  least,  enemy;  to  have,  me,  and,  we  shall 
consapevolmente,  fidele;  §:  pssere,  §,  fbbe,  semto,  l'anello; 
have,  consciously,  faithful;  to  be,  is,  he  had,  I  feel,  the  ring, 
a:  amare,  amava,  amai,  scale,  l'Alamanna,  l'ala;  9:  np,  cpsa,  to 
love,  I  was  loving,  I  loved,  stairs,  the  German,  the  wing;  no,  thing, 
sp,  sprte,  mpdo,  vi^ttola;  p:  dolore,  curipso,  curiosita, 
I  know,  fate,  manner,  narrow  way;  pain,  curious,  curiosity, 
dopo,  doveva;  u:  utile,  punto,  nulla,  studiare,  ultimo. 
afterwards,  I  ought;   useful,  not  at  all,  nothing,  to  study,  last. 

II.  Consonants. 

Pevere,  b§ne,  finire,  mplto,  npbile,  tutto,  temere,  nptte, 
Pepper,  well,  to  finish,  much,  noble,  all,  to  fear,  night, 
prometto,  tedesco,  dico,  medico,  dpsso,  adornare,  capo,  l'acca, 
I  promise,  German,  I  say,  doctor,  back,  to  adorn,  head,  the  h, 
caccia,  accid§nte,  bacchetta,  bacchiata,  npce,  nocchiere, 
hunt,  accident,  wand,  blow  with  a  stick,  walnut-tree,  pilot, 
duchessa,  arciduca,  cip,  pago,  pagina,  dugento,  gente,  castigo, 
duchess,  archduke,  this,  I  pay,  page,  two  hundred,  people,  punish- 
ment, castighi,  ghiaccio,  casa,  mese,  rpsa,  scpglio,  scegliere,  pascere, 
punishments,  ice,  house,  month,  rose,  rock,  to  choose,  to  graze, 
raschiare,  pesci,  vpglio,  paglia,  gli  specchi,  magnifico,  pgni, 
to  scrape,  fish,  I  wish,  straw,  the  mirrors,  magnificent,  every, 
bagno,  mfzzo,  guizzare,  z§lo,  azzurro,  alzare. 
bath,  middle,  to  dart,  zeal,  blue,  to  lift. 

III.  Vowel  Combinations. 

Bupno,  pi§de,  maestoso,  aria,  chiama,  causa. 

Good;  foot,  majestic,  air,  he  calls,  cause. 

IV.  Accent. 

Calamita,  calamita,  metafora,  metafprico,  metallo,  metallico. 
Magnet,  calamity,  metaphor,  metaphorical,  metal,  metallic. 

207 


208 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


il  ragazzo,  the  boy,  pi.  i  ragazzi 
la  ragazza,  the  girl,  pi.  le  ragazze 
lo    scolare,    the    pupil,    pi.    gli 

scolari    (fern,    la    scolare,     le 

scolari) 
il  signpre ,  the  gentleman  (signor, 

sir,  Mr.) ,  pi.  i  signori 
la  signora,  the  lady,  pi.  le  signore 
l'uomo,  the  man,  pi.  gli  u^mini 
inglese,  English,  pi.  inglesi  (fern. 

the  same,  cf.  109) 

io  sono,  I  am 

tu  sei,  thou  art 

egli  §,  he  is 

noi  siamo,  we  are 

voi  siete,  ye  (you)  are 

essi  sono,  they  are 


VOCABULARY 


piccolo,  small,  piccoli;    piccola, 

piccole 
quanto,  how  much,  pi.   quanti, 

how     many     (fern,      quanta, 

quante) 
§cco,  here  is,  here  are  (literally 
e,  and  ["behold") 

due,  two 
non,  no,  not 
si,  yes 
fssere,  to  be;  avere,  to  have 

io  ho,  I  have 

tu  hai,  thou  hast 

egli  ha,  he  has 

noi  abbiamo,  we  have 

voi  avete,  ye  (you)  have 

essi  hanno,  they  have 


sono  io?1 
sei  tu?,  etc. 


INTERROGATIVE. 

ho  io?,  etc. 

NEGATIVE. 

io  non  ho,  etc. 


10  non  sono 
tu  non  sei,  etc. 

Remarks.     (1)  The  pronouns  are  usually  not  expressed.3 

Sono.     I  am. 

Ha.     He  has. 

Non  hanno  i  libri?     Haven't  they  the  books? 

(2)  The  second  person  singular  of  these  and  all  verbs  (tu)  is  used 
in  addressing  a  near  relative,  an  intimate  friend,  or  a  child,  its 
plural,  voi,  in  addressing  two  or  more  relatives,  friends,  or  children, 
but  this  usage  of  voi  is  in  the  south  of  Italy  often  extended  even 
to  strangers.  Tu  and  voi  are  also  much  used  in  poetry,  but  the 
ordinary  form  of  address  is  the  feminine  3d  sing.4,  Ella  or  Lei  §,  Lei 
ha,3  etc. 

1  Cf.  72.  2  For  fuller  explanations  see  87  and  88. 

3  Cf.  91.  *  Only  the  third  person  singular  will  be  used  in  the  first 
exercises,  the  other  forms  being  introduced  later. 


EXERCISES.  209 


EXERCISE  II. 

fJcco  un  ragazzo.  II  ragazzo  ha  un  libro.  $  un  libro  i  tali  an  o?1 
Si,  §  un  libro  i  tali  an  o.  Ipcco  una  ragazza.  Ha  due  libri.  Sono 
libri  itali  ani  ?  No,  non  sono  i  t  ali  ani,  sono  inglesi.  La  ragazza  § 
Americana,1  il  ragazzo  §  It  ali  ano.  La  ragazza  americana2 
ha  libri  inglesi,  il  ragazzo  itali  ano  ha  libri  it  ali  ani.  II  ragazzo 
I  uno  scolare.  II  ragazzo  e  la  ragazza  sono  scolari.  Gli  scolari 
hanno  libri.  L'  uomo  ha  un  libro,  §  uno  scolare?  No,  non  §  uno 
scolare.  Ipcco  lo  scolare.  i£cco  due  scolari.  Gli  scolari  hanno 
libri  it  ali  ani.  Gl'  I  tali  ani  sono  scolari.  §  scolare  Lei? 
Si,  sono  uno  scolare,  e  ho  un  libro.  Lo  scolare  itali  ano  §  piccolo. 
Ij)  piccola  la  ragazza  americana?  Si,  §  piccola.  Quanti  libri  ha 
Lei,  signor  professor e?     Ho  due  libri.     Gli  u9mini  hanno  libri. 

1  For  the  capitalization  see  37. 

2  Note  the  position  of  the  adjective. 

EXERCISE  III. 

(1)   Here  is  a  book.     (2)   Here  are  two  books.     (3)    They1  are 

English  books.      (4)    The  American  boy  has  two  Italian  books. 

(5)    He  is  a  pupil.      (6)  Is  the  man  a  pupil?     (7)    Yes,  he  is  a  pupil 

and  he  has  a  book.      (S)   Is  the  girl  a  pupil?     (9)    Yes,  she  is  a2 

pupil.      (10)    She  has  two  Italian  books.      (11)    The  boy  and  the 

girl  are  pupils.      (12)    The  pupils  have  English  books.      (13)    Have 

you  books?     (14)   Yes,  I  have  two  Italian  books.     (15)   I  am  a 

(2)     (0 
pupil.     (16)    The    men    are  not    pupils.      (17)   The   men   have    no3 

books.      (18)   Yes,  they1  have  I  tali  ah  books.      (19)   Are  the  men 

Italians?     (20)    Yes,     they1     are     Italians.      (21)    Have     the 

Italians  English  books?     (22)    They  x  have  Italian  books  and 

English  books. 

Note. — The  pupil  should  in  writing  use  only  accents,  etc.,  com- 
monly employed  in  Italian,  not  the  diacritical  signs  used  in  this 
book  to  indicate  the  pronunciation. 

1  Omit. 

2  Una-scolare — taking  the  logical  gender. 

3  In  translating  arrange  words  in  order  as  numbered. 


2IO 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


VOCABULARY. 

Note. — Before  beginning  Exercise  IV  the  pupil  should  learn  the 
present  indicative  of  the  model  verb  of  the  first  conjugation,  mo- 
strare,  "to  show,  point"  (68). 


Like  mostrare: 
salutare,    to    salute,    say   good- 
morning  to 
dimorare,  to  live,  dwell 
am  are,  to  like,  love 
guardare,  to  look  at 
il  giorno,  the  day 
bupno,  good 

bupn1  giorno,    good-day,    good- 
morning 
il  maestro,  the  master,  teacher 
il  ritratto,  the  picture,  portrait 
il  re,  the  king 

il  paese,  the  country,  i  paesi 
il  fhime,  the  river,  i  fhimi 
1'  indice,  the  index  finger 
P  pcchio,  the  eye,  gli  pcchi 
la  mano,  the  hand,  le  mani 
la  tavola,  the  table,  le  tavole 
mio,  my,  mine,  miei;    fern,  mia, 

mie 
loro,     their,     theirs     (does    not 


change  its  form  either  in  fern. 

or  in  pi.) 
destro,  right,  destri;   fern,  destra, 

destre 
altro,    other,    altri;     fern,    altra, 

altre 
mprto,  dead,  morti;  fern,  morta, 

morte 
mplto,  much,  very  much,  molti, 

many;   fern,  mplta,  molte 
bel,1  bello,  beautiful;  fern,  bella, 
terzo,  third  [belle 

utile,  useful,  pi.  utili  (fern,  like 

masc.) 
Vittprio      Emmanu§le,      Victor 

Emmanuel 
Chiara,  Clara 
Italia,  Italy 
1'  Eurppa  (fern.) 
il  Tevere,  the  Tiber 
dove,  where 
da,  with,  at  the  house  of,  among 


lCf.  115. 

EXERCISE  IV. 

Saluto  i  miei  scolari.  Bupn  giorno,  signpre  e  signori.  Buon 
giorno,  signor  maestro!  Hanno  i  loro  libri  ?  Si,  abbiamo  i  libri. 
§cco  il  mio  libro.  Ho  il  libro  nella  mano  destra.  II  libro  §  sulla 
tavola.  Mostro  il  libro  coll'  indice  della  mano  destra.  Guarda  il 
libro,  Carlo  ?  Si,  guardo  il  libro  cogli  occhi.  §  il  libro  del  signor 
mafstro.  Ecco  un  altro  libro.  Ip  il  libro  della  ragazza.  §  un  libro 
it  alia  no.  Ecco  un  ritratto  d' un  re  it  alia  no,  del  re  Vittprio 
Emmanuele  I.1  ^  mprto  il  re  Vittprio  Emmanuele?  Si,  ^  mprto. 
Dove  dimpra  il  re  d'  Italia?  Dimpra  in  Italia.  L'ltalia  |  un  bel 
paese.  II  Tevere  §  un  flume  dell'  Italia.  Ama  1'  Italia?  Si,  amo 
1'  Italia.      Dimpra    Dante    in  Italia?     Np,    Dante    §    mprto.     E    la 


EXERCISES. 


211 


Beatrice?     Si,  la   Beatrice  §   m9rta.      Amano  gl'  Italiani  il  Dante? 
Si,  amano  il  Dante. 

1  Read  primo. 

EXERCISE  V. 

(i)    Where  is  Italy?     (2)   Italy  is  a  country  of  Europe.      (3)    Has 

Italy  a  king?     (4)  Yes,  Italy  has  a  king.      (5)   Victor  Emmanuel  III. 

is  king  of  Italy.      (6)    I  am  showing  the  king's  picture.      (7)   It  is 

in  the  little  boy's  book.      (8)    Where  is  the  book?     (9)    I  have  the 

book  in  my1  right  hand.      (10)    Do  you  like   books?     (11)  Yes,  I 

(1)         (3)  (-P       (s)        (2)  (*) 

love   pictures   and   books   very   much.       (12)   I   have   an  Italian 

book  for  the  boy.      (13)    Here  is  the  Italian's  book.      (14)  Books 

are  useful.      (15)    Has  Clara  a  book?     (16)    Yes,  she  is  showing  the 

book  to  the  little  boy.      (17)    Little  boys  like   books  and  pictures. 

(2)  (1) 

(18)    The  Italian  books  are  from  Italy.     (19)    Clara  is  in  Italy. 

(20)    She  !  is  living  with2  Mrs.  B. 


Omit 


2  Use  da 


il  pofta,  the  poet 

il  padre,  the  father 

il  politico,  the  politician 

il  calamaio,  the  ink-stand 

V  emisfero,  the  hemisphere,  gli 
emisffri 

1'  inchipstro  (mas.) ,  the  ink 

la  penna,  the  pen 

la  carta,  the  paper 

la  scuola,     the    school,     school- 
room 

la  lingua,  the  language,  tongue 

la  cosa,  the  thing,  object 

la  provincia,  the  province 

la  citta,  the  city 

la  casa,  the  house 

la  bpeca,  the  mouth 

1'  ppera,  the  work 

1'  America,  America 


VOCABULARY. 

V  America  del  Nord,  North  Amer- 
ica 

la  Toscana,  Tuscany 

Firenze,  Florence 

toscano,  Tuscan,  toscani;  tos- 
cana, toscane 

tedesco,  German,  tedeschi;  te- 
desca,  tedesche 

francese,  French,  francesi 

grande  (gran)1,  great 

9 vest,  western,  west 

insegnare,  to  teach 

parlare.  to  speak 

vi  §.  there  is;   vi  sono,  there  are 

anche,  also 

con,  with 

adesso,  now 

dentro,  within,  inside 


1  Cf.  115.     The  feminine  is  like  the  masculine. 


212  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


EXERCISE  VI. 


Siamo  in  Italia?  No,  siamo  in  America,  paese  dell'  emisfero 
dell'  9vest.  L'  America  del  Nord  §  un  gran  paese.  Vi  sono  degl' 
Italiani  nell' America  del  Nord?  Si,  vi  spno  molti  I  tali  an  i, 
Vi  sono  degl'  Italiani  npbili.  Vi  sono  anc'he  dei  Tedeschi  e  dei 
Francesi.  Hanno  gP  Italiani  in  America  libri  italiani?  Si, 
§cco  dei  libri  italiani  sulla  tavola.  Sono  le  Qpere  del  Dante 
Non  vi  |  altra  cosa?  Si,  vi  §  un  calamaio  con  dell'  inchigstro 
dentro.  Ho  anche  delle  penne  per  gli  scolari.  Non  hanno  lapis 
gli  scolari?  Si,  hanno  dei  lapis,  ma  non  penne.  Sono  Italiani 
gli  scolari?  No,  sono  American i.  Hanno  dei  libri  italiani, 
e  anche  degl'inglesi,:  Hanno  della  carta  e  dell'  inchipstro.  Io  sono 
il  ma§stro.  II  padre  del  ragazzo  col  libro  inglese  §  anche  maestro, 
|p  un  buon  maestro  di  lingua  francese.  Insegna  il  francese,  lingua 
bella  e  molto  music  ale.  Ha  degli  scolari?  Si,  ha  degli  scolari 
americani,  non  ha  scolari  italiani.  Non  §  a  scuola  adesso,  § 
a  casa. 

1="some  English  ones." 


it>j 


EXERCISE  VII. 

(i)  Have  you  any  ink?  (2)  No,  I  have  no1  ink;  I  have  some 
paper  and  some  pencils.  (3)  I  have  some  books  too,  some  Italian 
books.  (4)  I  have  some  of  the  works  of  Dante.  (5)  Dante  was 
a  poet.  (6)  Was  Dante  a  Frenchman?  (7)  No,  he  was  an  Italian; 
he  was  an  Italian  poet.  (8)  He  lived  in  Florence.  (9)  Florence 
is  a  city  of  Italy.  (10)  It  is  in  Tuscany,  a  province  of  Italy. 
(11)  Dante  was  a  Tuscan.  (12)  He  was  a  politician.  (13)  He 
speaks  as2  a2  poet  and  as2  a2  politician.  (14)  tie  speaks  for  Italy. 
(15)  Italy  speaks  with  the  mouth  of  Dante.  (16)  They3  say3  that3 
Dante  was  not  a  noble. 

1  ="I  have  not  ink" — placing  "not"  before  "have". 

2  Cf.  49  (3).  3  Si  dice  che. 


VOCABULARY. 

il  piede,  the  foot  la  direttrice,  the  directress 

il  leone,  the  lion  la  maestra,  the  mistress,  teacher 

il  mare,  the  sea,  ocean  V  §ssere,  the  being 

il  fratello,  the  brother  V  insetto,  the  insect 

il  direttore,  the  director  V  autore,  the  author 


EXERCISES.  213 

la  pittura,1  the  picture  questo,  this 

la  montagna,  the  mountain  suo   his,  her,  suoi,   fan.  sua.  sue 

la  s<?dia,  the  seat  nostro,  our 

la  panca,  the  bench  corto,  short 

la  lavagna,  the  blackboard,  slate       lungo,     long,     lunghi;       lunga, 

la  matita,  the  pencil,  crayon  lunghe 

la  lezione,  the  lesson  umano,  human 

la  settimana,  the  week  spagnuolo,  Spanish 

la  spugna,  the  sponge  cinque,  five 

1   ala,  the  wing,  le  ali  poichfc,  for,  since 

1'  ape   the  bee  come,  like,  as 

la  regina,  the  queen  studiare,  to  study 

le  Alpe  (or  Alpi) ,  the  Alps  danno,  they  give  (from  dare,  irr.) 

tutto,  all 

1  Cf.  38,   ure,  and  Remark  2  (c). 

EXERCISE  VIII. 

Sulla  mia  tavola  vi  sono  libri  grossi  e  piccoli,  italiani,  inglesi, 
francesi,  spagnuoli,  e  tedeschi.  £cco  un  libro  di  Shakespeare.  Lo 
Shakespeare  §  un  autore  inglese,  Dante  e  V  Ari9sto  sono  autpri 
italiani.  E  il  Goethe?  §  un  autore  tedesco.  Tutti  questi  autori 
sono  fa  mo  si.  ]£cco  un  ritratto  dello  Shakespeare.  Ha  anche 
ritratti  di  Dante  e  dell'  Ariosto?  Si,  sono  nei  libri.  Dove  sono  i 
libri?  Nella  scupla,  sulla  tavola.  Siamo  in  una  scupla,  vi  sono 
molte  scuQle  in  questo  edificio.  Nella  nostra  scuola  vi  sono  sedie, 
panche,  tavole  e  lavagne.  Vi  sono  anche  delle  penne  e  dei  lapis, 
delle  matite  e  una  spugna.  Vi  §  dell'  inchiostro  nei  calamai.  Gli 
scolari  diligenti1  stiidiano.  Studiano  una  lezione  italiana. 
Hanno  anche  delle  lezioni  inglesi  e  delle  lezipni  di  geografia. 
Hanno  una  corta  lezione  di  geografia.  Hanno  cinque  lezioni 
la  settimana. 

1  Observe  the  position  of  the  adjective. 

EXERCISE  IX. 

(1)  Here  is  our  school.  (2)  There  are  many  classrooms  in1  it1. 
(3)  The  scholars  have  Italian  books.  (4)  There  are  a  great  many 
tables.  (5)  Here  are  the  director  and  directress  of  the  school. 
(6)  They  give  the  lessons  to  the  scholars.  (7)  The  girl  on  the 
bench  is  diligent.  (S)  The  two  boys,  her  brothers,  are  also 
diligent.  (9)  They  have  long  English  lessons  and  short  Italian 
lessons.     (10)   Here  are  pictures  of  two  kings  of  Italy,     (n)   Here 


214 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


is  a  picture  of  the  Alps.      (12)    The  scholars  are  in  school  five  days 

(2)  (3)  (1) 

of  the   week.      (13)    The   teachers    (masters   and   mistresses)2   also. 

(14)  The  boys  and  girls2  have  desks,3  pencils,  pens,  books,  paper, 
and  ink.  (15)  They  are4  studying4  geography.  (16)  Geog- 
raphy speaks  of  continents,  countries,  oceans,  rivers,  mountains, 
and  cities.  (17)  Zoology  speaks  of  animals.  (18)  The  lion 
is  the  king  of  ani  mals.  (19)  For  animals,  like  human  beings, 
have  kings.  (20)  Bees  have  queens,  not  kings.  (21)  Bees  are 
insects,  but  insects  are  animals.  (22)  Bees  have  wings,  men 
have  feet. 


Omit. 


*  Cf.  46.         s  Tavole. 


they  study" — sttidiano. 


VOCABULARY. 


il  polso,  the  pulse 

il  mfdico,  the  doctor,  i  mfdici 

il  singolare,  the  singular 

il  plurale,  the  plural 

il  nome,  the  name 

il  ppllice,  the  thumb 

il  dito  annulare,  the  ring-finger 

il  duco,  the  duke,  i  duchi 

1'  Egiziano,  the  Egyptian 

il  monarca,   the  monarch,  i  mo- 

narchi 
il  figliuolo,  the  little  son 
1'  uomo  dabbe,  ne,  the  good  man 

(lit.  the  man  of  good) 

V  amico,  the  friend,  gli  amici 

V  inimico,  the  enemy,  gl'  inamici 
1'  ucc^llo,  the  bird 

1'  §st,  the  east 

1'  unghia,  the  nail,  le  unghie 
la  gamba,  the  leg 
1'  estremita,    the    extremity,    le 
estremita 

V  eccezione,  the  exception,  1'  ec- 
cezioni 

P  §rre,  the  "r",  V  §rri 
la  rf  gola,  the  rule 


la  prontincia,  the  pronunciation 
la  guancia,  the  cheek,  le  guance 
la  Scarpa,  the  shoe  [period 

superiore,  superior,  upper,  su- 
attaccato,     attached,     attaccati; 

attaccata,   attaccate   (p.  part. 

of  attaccare) 
sinistro,    left,    sinistri;     sinistra, 

sinistre 
irregolare,  irregular,  irregolari 
difficile,  difficult,  difficili 
forte,  strong,  forti 
povero,    poor,    p9veri;      p<?vera, 

p9vere 
roseo,  rosy,  rosei;   rosea,  rosee 
antico,  ancient,  antichi;    antica, 

antiche 
nessuno,  no,  none,  nessuni;   nes- 

suna,  nessune 
savio,  wise,  savi;   savia,  savie 
tastare,  feel  (first  conj.) 
imparare,  to  learn  (first  conj.) 
vede,  you  see,  pi.  vedono  (from 

vedere,  to  see,  irr.) 
si  unisce,  is  united  (lit.  "unites 

itself"),  from  unire 


EXERCISES.  215 

fatto,  made,   done    (p.   part,    of  se,mpre,  always 

fare)  tre.  three  [narily 

avuto,  had  (p.  part,  of  avere)  ordinariarmente,    usually,    ordi- 

lftto,  read  (p.  part,  of  l^ggere)  quale,  what 

mostri,  show  (imperative  of  mo-  di,  of 

strare)  .  cio§.  that  is,  that  is  to  say 

qualche  volta,  sometimes  non  e  vero,  is  not  true 

spesso,  often  piu...di,  more... than 

EXERCISE  X. 

Vedono1  la  mano?  II  braccio?  II  dito  anulare?  Le  cinque  dita? 
Vedono  le  braccia?  Sono  le  membra  superiori,  e  le  gambe  sono 
le  membra  inferiori.  Le  braccia  sono  forti.  Le  mani  sono  attaccate 
alle  braccia,  e  i  pie,di  sono  attaccati  alle  gambe.  La  mano  si  unisce 
al  braccio  col  polso.  Io  tasto  il  polso.  I  mfdici  lo  tastano  ordi- 
nariamente.  Tasto  il  polso  del  braccio  sinistro  cplle  dita  della  mano 
de,stra.  Non  colle  unghie.  L'  unghia  (pi.  le  unghie)  §  all'estremita 
del  dito.  I£cco  le  unghie.  Impariamo2  i  nomi  delle  dita.  Mpstri 
il  pgllice.  Quanti  pgllici  ha?  Hanno  gli  ucce,lli  le  dita?  Quale 
I  il  singolare  di  dita?  |  un  nome  irregolare,  non  §  vero?  Dite 
il  plurale  di  labbro.  §  anche  irregolare.  E  il  plurale  di  due  a? 
Sono  eccezipni.  Le  rfgole  hanno  eccezioni.  L'  eccezioni  sono 
difficili.  5  difficile  la  proniincia  dell'  italiano?  La  pronuncia 
dell'  erre  |  difficile. 

1  Really  the  third  person  plural  of  the  verb.  Used  in  address- 
ing several  persons  to  one  of  whom  the  third  person  singular 
would  be  used. 

2  Means  as  wTell  "let  us  learn"  as  "we  learn  ". 

EXERCISE  XI. 

(2)         (1) 
(1)   Oxen   are   strong.      (2)    They   have   large    bones.      (3)    Oxen 

are  stronger1  than  men,   but  men  are  more  intelligent  than  oxen. 

(4)    Many  animals  are  very  strong.      (5)    Men  have  sometimes  made 

gods  of  animals.      (6)    The  ancient  Egyptians  made  gods  of  bulls 

and    of    birds.      (7)    The    ancient    Greeks    had    hundreds    of    gods. 

(8)    Do  you  see  the  man  with  the  large  book  on  his  knees?     (9)    He 

is  a  friend  of  my  father's.      (10)    He  has  had  two  wives.      (11)    He 

is  poor.      (12)    Parsons  are  often  poor.      (13)    His  little  son  has  not 

two  pairs  of  shoes.      (14)    But  he  is  a  good  man.      (15)    He  has  no2 

enemies  and  he  has  many  friends.      (16)  His  little  daughter3  has 

rosy  cheeks.     (17)   Kings  are   not  always  good  men,  are   they?4 


2l6 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


(18)  No,  monarchs  are  not  always  good  men.  (19)  Have  you  read 
about 5  the  three  wise  men?  That  is  to  say,  the  three  kings  of  the 
East.6 

1  Piu  forti  di  (with  art.).  2  Non  ha  nessuni. 

Construct  from  the  word  given  for  "little  son"  by  changing 
the  ending. 

4  ="is  it  not  true?"  6  ="of."  6  Cf.  62,  Remark  1. 


VOCABULARY. 


il  levare,  the  rising,  sunrise  (the 
infinitive  used  as  a  substan- 
tive, cf.  51  (a)  (2)) 

il  sole,  the  sun 

il  collo,  the  neck 

il  cane,  the  dog 

il  coraggio,  the  courage 

il  sentimento,  the  sentiment 

Torino,  Turin 

la  Spagna,  Spain 

la  porta,  the  door,  gate    [corner 

la  svoltata,  the  turn,  street- 
la  strada,  the  street 

la  via,  the  way,  road 

la  spesa,  the  cost 

la  tranquillita,  the  tranquillity 

la  vita,  the  life 

noi,  we,  us 

essa,  she 

me,  mi,  me,  myself 

se,  himself,  herself,  itself 

giovane,  young 

oggi,  to-day 

il  mercoledi,  Wednesday 

quando,  when 

benchfc,  although  (followed  by 
subjunctive) 

cosi,  so,  thus 

perp,  but,  however 

fra,  within,  to 


subito,  soon,  quickly 
lentamente,  slowly 
volenti^ri,  gladly 
davvero,  indeed,  truly 
altre  volte,  formerly 
fino  a,  as  far  as,  until 
insi^me,  together 
consigliare,  to  counsel 
pensare,  to  think 
sperare,  to  hope 
mancare,  to  lack 
accompagnare,  to  accompany 
singhiozzare,  to  sob 
gettare,  to  throw,  cast 
restare,  to  remain,  stay 
tornare,  to  return 
picchiare,  to  knock 
dimenticare,  to  forget 
passeggiare,  to  walk 
viaggiare,  to  travel 
chiamare,  to  call 
incontrare,  to  meet 
lasciare,  to  leave,  let 
lamentarsi,1  to  complain 
stare,  to  be  (of  health),  3d  pers. 

sing.  ind.  pres.    sta,  pi.  stanno 
risppndere,  to  reply    (irr.  pret. 

risposi) 
piangere,  to  weep 
abborrire,  to  abhor 


EXERCISES.  217 

aprire,  to  open  sentire,  to  feel 

dire,   to   say    (irr.  pret.    dissi,    I       capire,  to  understand 

said)  tossire,  to  cough 

flnire,  to  finish  §ra,  I  was 

1  Si  is  the  reflexive  pronoun.     Cf.  96  and  102. 

EXERCISE  XII. 

Mancava  un'  pra  al  levar  del  sole  quando  partii.  Mia  madre 
mM  accompagnp  alia  porta.  Io,  singhiozzando,  le  2  gettai  le  braccia 
al  collo  e  dissi:  No,  mamma!  Npn  parto!  Resterp  con  te!  Comin- 
ciava  a3  piangere  anche  lei,  e  temeva  di 3  parlare.  Io  restava  un 
momento  in  istrada  4  a  guardare  la  casa,  la  porta.  Picchierp? 
Chiamerp  la  mamma  ad  aprire?  Ma  no,  dicevo  fra  me,  ma  np, 
lascia  stare,  mostra  che  s§i  upmo,  parti  subito!  Coraggio!  E  pas- 
seggiavo  lentamente  per  la  via.  Incontrai  alia  svoltata  d'  una 
strada  un  mio  amico.5 — Ma  come,  mi  domandp,  partite? — Si, — 
risposi, — parto  per  la  Spagna. — Capisco,  ma  perch§  npn  siete  con- 
tfnto  di  partire?  Viaggerei  sfmpre  io,  se  non  temessi  le  grandi 
spese.  Lascerfi  pggi  la  casa,  e  senza  lamentarmi. — E  davvero, 
quando  vi 6  p§nso  adesso  finisco  per  dire7:  Com' ero  sciocco!  E  mi 
sfnto,  perp,  sfmpre  lo  stesso!  Capisco  ancora  i  sentimenti  del  bam- 
bino d'  allpra.  Abbprro  il  momento  del  partire.  E  consiglier^i  a 
tutti  di  restare  in  casa,  benche  viaggiassi  mplto  quando  e,ra  gipvane. 
Perdiamo  mplto  tutti,  perd§ndo  la  tranquillita  della  vita  di  casa. 
Cosi,  non  viaggiamo  piu! 

1  M'  for  mi  before  a  vowel. 

2  Le  .  .  .  al  collo  =" around  her  neck".     Cf.  98  (2). 

3  For  the  use  of  a  and  di  before  a  dependent  infinitive  cf.  211  (2), 
212  (1). 

4  Istrada  for  strada  because  preceded  by  in.     Cf.  36  (b). 

5  "A  friend  of  mine."  6  "Of  it."  7  "  Bv  saving." 


'&• 


ORAL   EXERCISE. 

(1)  Quanto   tempo   mancava   al  levar  del    sole    quando    parti  il 
ragazzo? 

(2)  Chi  V  accompagnp  alia  pprta? 

(3)  Che  cpsa  faceva  part^ndo,  e  che  cpsa  diceva? 

(4)  Ha  parlato  la  mamma? 

(5)  Perche  np? 

(6)  Restava  ancora  qualche  tempo  in  istrada? 

(7)  Cpsa  voleva  fare?     Cpsa  diceva  fra  se1? 


218  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

(8)  Chi  incontrp  e  dove? 

(9)  Che  domandp  P  amico? 
(10)    Che  cosa  risppse  2  ? 

(n)    Perche  npn  parte  1'  amico  per  la  Spagna? 

(12)  Lascerebbe  Lei  la  casa  per  viaggiare? 

(13)  Teme  le  grandi  spese? 

(14)  Capisce     i     sentimenti      del      ragazzo?     Abborrisce      il 
moment o    del  partire? 

(15)  Ha  viaggiato  mplto? 

(16)  Viaggerebbe  ancpra  volentieri?     Viaggerebbe  volentieri  con 
me? 

(17)  Quando  partiremo? 

1  ="to  himself." 

7  From  risppndere — preterite  third  person  singular. 

EXERCISE  XIII. 

(1)  It  is  still  an  hour  before  sunrise.  (2)  I  sleep  well,  and  so  I 
did  not  hear  when  you  knocked.  (3)  Who  accompanied  you  !  to 
the  house?  (4)  Your  brother;  he2  travelled  with  me.3  (5)  Oh,  I 
understand.  You  met  him13  in  Turin,  did4  you4  not4?  (6)  When 
did  you5  leave  Turin?  (7)  I  left6  Turin  yesterday,  but  I  left  home 
on 2  Wednesday.  (8)  I  hope  that  you  will  stay  with  us  a  2  long 7 
time.  (9)  I  shall  stay  a  week,  then  I  shall  travel  as  far  as  Rome. 
(10)  Let  us  hope,  then,  that  you  will  return  to  us.  (11)  Do  not 
forget  your  friends.  (12)  I  shall  not  forget.  (13)  I  shall  show 
you8  that  I  do  not  forget.  (14)  Let  us  speak  of  your  mother  and 
of  your  brothers;  are  they  well?  (15)  Yes,  they  are  well.  (16)  My 
mother  coughs  a  little,  but  she  feels 9  well.  (1 7)  Shall  we  take  10  a  10 
walk10  together?  (18)  Yes,  I  will  gladly  take  a  walk.  (19)  My 
brother  will  accompany  us.11  (20)  There  is  a  dog;  do  not  be 
afraid12  of2  him.13  (21)  I  am  not  afraid  of  him.  (22)  My  sister 
used14  to  be  afraid14  of  dogs,  but  now  she  does15  not  fear  them.16 
(23)  Let  us  return  to  the  house  now.  (24)  We  shall  not  go  out 
any2  more  to-day. 

1  T'  before  verb.       2  Omit.         3  Me.  4  ="  Is  it  not  true?" 

5  Use  second  person  plural  preterite. 

8  Use  partire  followed  by  di.        7  =  "  much."        8  Ti  before  verb. 

9  Supply  si  before  verb.  10  ="  walk."  n  Ci  before  verb. 
12  ="  fear."                               13  Lp  before  verb. 

14  ="  feared  formerly."     Use  imperfect. 

lb  ="  fears  no  more."  16  Li  before  verb. 


EXERCISES. 


219 


VOCABULARY. 


il  carattere,  the  character 

il  triumviro,  the' triumvir 

il  soldato,  the  soldier 

il  terreno,  the  ground,  land 

il  colono.  the  colonist 

il  periodo,  the  period,  time 

il  luogo,  the  place 

il  tempo,  the  time 

il  diritto,  the  right,  privilege 

il  figlio,  the  son 

il  bambino,  the  baby 

il  sonno,  the  sleep 

avere  sonno,  to  be  sleepy 

l'anno,  the  year  [ity 

l'estremo,  the  extreme,  extrem- 

1'anfiteatro,  the  amphitheatre 

l'impero,  the  empire 

la  parte,  the  part 

la  st<?ria,  the  history 

la  repubblica,  the  republic 

la  colQnia,  the  colony 

la  traccia,  the  trace 

la  piazzetta,    the    little    square, 

open  space 
la  dipendenza,  the  dependence 
Porigine,  the  origin 
Pedificazione,  the  edifice 
la  Grfcia,  Greece 
San1  Simone,  Saint  Simon 
Colombo,  Columbus 
ciascuno,  each,  each  one 

lCf.  115. 


ogni,  every 

chi,  who 

caro,  dear 

sicuro,  ccrtairl 

militare,  military 

etrusco,  Etruscan 

primo,  first 

assoluto,  absolute 

occidentale,  western 

contento,  content,  glad 

naturalmente,  naturally 

maggiore,2  greater,  larger 

quando,  when 

piii,  more 

ancora,  still 

male,  badly 

fin  da,  from 

perche,  because 

ascoltare,  to  listen 

assegnare,  to  assign 

emigrare,  to  emigrate 

cambiare,  cambiarsi,  to  change 

andare,  to  go  (irr.  va,  he  goes) 

credere,  to  believe 

divenire,  to  become  (irr.  p.  part. 

divenuto) 
condurre.    to>  conduct     (irr.    p. 

part,   condotto) 
dividere,  to  divide  (irr.  p.  park. 

diviso) 
conoscere,  to  know  (a  person) 

2  Cf.  123. 


EXERCISE  XIV. 

Firfnze,  e  con  Firfnze  la  maggipr1  parte  delle  citta  antiche,  va 
perdfndo  ogni  giorno  il  suo  carattere  antico.  Npn  dimentichiamo 
mai  la  stpria  di  questa  cara  npstra  citta.2  Abbiamo  per  cosa 
sicura  che  3  nelP  anno  404  avanti  Gesu  Cristo,  quando  la  repubblica 


220  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

romana  §ra  agli  estremi,  fu  da  Ottavio  e  dagli  altri  due  trhimviri 
condotta  una  col9nia  militare  a  Firenze,  e  a  ciascuno  dei  soldati 
venne 5  assegnata  una  porzione  di  terreno.  Essendo  numerosi 
questi  coloni  la  citta  9  divenuta  stibito  molto  piu  grande.  Vi  spno 
ancora  molte  traccie  delle  edificazioni  del  periodo.  Cost  nel  lupgo 
dove  9ggi  sono  le  piazzette  di  San  Simone  e  dei  Peruzzi  v'  era  un 
anfiteatro  r  o  m  an  o .  Firenze,  fin  dai  primi  tempi,  ebbe  molti  diritti, 
§ra  pen)  in  uno  stato  di  dipendemza  assoluta  da  Roma,  e  le  C9se  di 
Roma  andavano  male.  Fu  alia  m9rte  dell'  imperatore  Teodosio  in 
395  che  V  imp^ro  venne  diviso  fra  i  su9i  due  figli.  Fir§nze  §ra 
naturalmente  della  parte  Occidentale  dove  fu  signore  Onorio. 

1  Cf.  36.  2  "This  dear  city  of  ours." 

3  "We  hold  it  as  certain  that."  4  Read  quaranta.     Cf.  251. 

5  Third  person  singular  preterite  indicative  of  venire.     Cf.  81  (b). 

ORAL   EXERCISE. 

(1)  %  una  citta  antica  Firenze? 

(2)  Che  C9sa  va  perd§ndo? 

(3)  ^  interessante  la  st9ria  dell'  origine  di  Fir§nze? 

(5)  Da  chi  fu  condotta  la  col9nia  militare   a  Firenze  nell'  anno 
40  avanti  Gesu  Cristo? 

(6)  Ch'  §ra  allora  la  condizione  della  repubblica  romana? 

(7)  I£rano  numerosi  i  col9ni? 

(8)  §  divenuta  grande  la  citta  di  Firenze? 

(9)  Sonvi  ancora  traccie  delle  edificazioni  del  periodo? 

(10)  Vi  §ra  un  anfiteatro  romano?     Dove? 

(11)  E*a  indipend^nte  la  citta? 

(12)  Quando  venne  diviso  1'  imp^ro  romano? 

(13)  Di  che  parte  e,ra  Firenze? 

(14)  Chi  fu  signore  della  parte  occidentale? 

(15)  Dimenticheranno  i  Fiorentini  la  st9ria  dell'  origine  della 
citta? 

EXERCISE  XV. 

(1)  Are  you  sleepy?  No!  (2)  Then  let  us  talk  about  l  the  his- 
tory of  Florence.  (3)  I  should  be2  very  glad  to  listen.2  (4)  I  have 
not  been  in  Florence  long,3  but  I  love  it.4  (5)  It  is  an  old  city,  but 
it  is  changing5  very6  much.  (6)  It  was  an  old  city  when  Columbus 
was  a  baby.      (7)    So  it  has  had  a  very 7  long  history.     (S)  We  should 

(1)      (3)      (4)        (2) 
have  to  study  a  long  time  (in  order)  to  know  its  history  well.      (9)   A 


EXERCISKS. 


221 


Roman  colony  was  brought  to  Florence  by  Octavius.  (10)  But 
there  were  men  in  the  city  who  were  not  Romans,  (u)  Listen! 
It  is  believed  that  the  Etruscans  were  from  Greece.  They  emigrated 
into  Italy.  (12),  Fiesole  was  an  Etruscan  city,  and  the  first  colonists 
of  Florence  were  from  Fiesole.  (13)  We  have  spoken  of  Fiesole — 
but  who  that8  has  not  been  in  Florence  knows  Fiesole?  (14)  And 
who  does  not  know  Florence?  (15)  FJ§sole  was,  but  Florence 
is — and  will  be,  let  us  hope! 

1  ="of."  2  ="  listen  gladly/' 

3  =  "much  time."  4  L'  before  verb. 

5  Cambiandosi.     For  the  rendering  of  "  is  "  cf.  foregoing  exercise. 

6  Omit.  7  Molto.  8  Che. 


VOCABULARY. 


Io  str§  pito,  the  noise 

il  genitore,  the  parent 

il  piacere,  the  pleasure 

per  piacere,  as  a  favor,  please 

il  cugino,  the  cousin 

la  zia,  the  aunt 

la     grazie,     the     grace,     favor; 

grazie,  thanks 
tranquillo,  quiet 
piccino,  little,  little  child 
tan  to,  such  a,  so  much 
niente,  nothing 
nemmeno,  nor  .  .  .  either 
da,  to  (a  person) 


qui,  here 

li,  there 

volere,  to  wish  (irr.  voglio,  vuoi, 

I  wish,  thou  wishest) 
venire,  to  come  (irr.  vieni,  come 

thou) 
giocare  (giuocare) ,  to  play 
rincrescere    (impersonal) ,    to    be 

sorry 
rincrescere  di,  to  be  sorry  for 
ridere,  to  laugh 
ridere  di,  to  laugh  at 
star(e)  buono,  to  be  good,  quiet 


EXERCISE    XVI. 

Parla  Lei?  No,  parla  lui.  Dica  loro  per  piacere  che  non  voglio 
tanto  strfpito. — Nemmeno  io.  Voi,  bambini,  state  tranquilli !  E 
tu,  Carlino,  vieni  con  me.  Cosi.  Starai  buono  adesso  tu?  II 
cugino  ride  di  te. — No,  no,  zia,  non  ride  di  me!  Essi  ridono,  ma 
ridono  di  se,  non  di  me. — Non  fa  niente.  Io  vado  dalla  mamma, 
vuoi  venire  con  me?  Si,  si,  vieni  anche  tu. — Io  no,  vedo  li  il  mio 
amico  Enrico,  voglio  giocare  con  lui. — Oh,  cattivo!  E  i  genitpri, 
non   saresti  contento   di  vederli1?      Mi   rincresce.2 — Ebbene,    venite 


222 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


voialtri — Grazie,  signora,  Lei  §  molto  buona,  studierp  bene  adesso 
io,  senza  di  lpro. — Vedete,  piccini?     $  lui  che  §  contento. 

1  Li  ="  them" — a  conjunctive  form. 

2  "  I  am  sorry" — a  conjunctive  form. 

EXERCISE  XVII. 

(i)    Who  is  talking  so  much?      (2)   It  is  they,  not  I;    children,  it 
is  you,  isn't  it?     (3)    You,  Charlie!      Be   quiet!      I  want  to  study. 

(4)  Be   quiet  now,   please,  you   (=thou)    and  he  and  all  of  you! 

(5)  He  is  quiet,  and  so  is  she.  (6)  The  two  little  girls  are  very 
good.  (7)  Yes,  they  are  good — but  you!  (8)  Mrs.  Baretti,  where 
are  you?  (9)  I?  I  am  here;  don't  you  see  me1?  (10)  We  are  all 
here;  talk  with  us.  (1 1)  How  do  you  do?  And  your  brother,  how 
is  he?  (12)  I  am  well,  but  he  has  been  ill.  (13)  Oh  you  poor 
thing2!  (14)  We  were  speaking  of  him  yesterday,  of  you  and  of 
him.  (15)  I  am  so  sorry  for  him.  (16)  Let  us  speak  to  them 
about  him.      They 3  will  be  so  sorry  too. 

1  Non  mi  vede — mi  being  a  conjunctive  form.  2  Omit. 

3  Translate  ' '  to  them  " .     Cf .  Exercise  XVI . 


VOCABULARY. 


la  voce,  the  voice 

ad  alta  voce,  aloud 

la  vista,  the  sight 

a  prima  vista,  at  (first)  sight 

la  lettura,  the  reading 

V  immagine,  the  picture,  cut 

interessante,  interesting 

solamente,  only 

ebbene,  well,  very  well 

allora,  then 

poco  (p9') ,  little 

ma,  but 

gia,  already 


assicurare,  to  assure 

scusare,  to  excuse 

spiegare,  to  explain 

dare,  to  give  (irr.) 

sapere,  to  know  (a  thing),  (irr. 

so,  I  know) 
potere,  to  be  able  (irr.  posso,   I 

can,  puQ,  he  can) 
piacere,  to  please  (irr.  and  often 

used  impersonally — mi  piace, 

I  like) 
prfndere,  to  take   (irr.  p.  part. 

preso) 


EXERCISE  XVIII. 

Dov'  §  il  libro? — Eccolo. — Datemelo. — Grdzie!  Ne  parleremo  un 
P9'. — Oh,  signor  maestro,  np!  La  prego  di  scusarmi,  poich^  npn 
1'  ho,   letto.     E   perch^  no? — Non  ne  I19  avuto  il  tempo. — Ebbene, 


EXERCISES.  223 

^ccovene  un  altro  che  §  piu  facile,  solamente,  non  avendolo  letto, 
non  p9sso  assicurarvi  che  sia  interessante.  Ma  S9  che  potrete  If g- 
gerlo  a  prima  vista.  Lp  leggeremo  insi^me  e  ve  lo  spieghierp. — 
Come  sono  cont^nto  di  poterne  capire  molto  da  me  solo! — Vi  fara 
bene  l§ggerlo  ad  alta  voce,  e  allora  vpstro  fratello  1'  ascoltera.  Gli 
farebbe  b§ne  anche  a  lui. — Lo  farp  volentieri,  la  lettura  ad  alta  voce 
mi  piace  molto. — Non  Le  piace,  signorina? — Si,  signore,  mi  piace 
tanto,  e  ne  farp  la  mia  parte. — Avete  visto  le  b$lle  immagini? — Nos- 
signpre.1 — Allora  guardatele.  Esse  spno  davvero  bflle.  Mostratele 
anche  ad  Ernesto. — Non  §  qui?  Chiamalo,  Carlo,  per  piacere. — 
Oh,  eccolo!  Ma  ad§sso  dpv'  ^  il  libro.  Dammelo,  ti  prego,  glielo 
mostrer^. 

1  Frequently  used  for  np  signore. 

EXERCISE  XIX. 

(1)  Show  me  your  hands.  (2)  Here1  they  are.  (3)  Show  them 
to  him  and  say:  I  am  showing  them  to  you.  (4)  Take  the  book. 
(5)  I  have  taken  it.  (6)  Give  it  to  them.  (7)  They  are  showing 
him  the  pictures.  (8)  We  have  already  seen  them.  (9)  Show 
them  to  me.  (10)  I  have  seen  them,  and  I  shall  show  them  to  him 
and  to  her.  (11)  I  will  show  them  to  them  at  once.  (12)  Show 
me  some.  (13)  We  were  talking  about  it.  (14)  I  have  not  seen 
him.  (15)  I  knew  it.  I  told  her  so,  but  she  would2  not  listen  to 
me.  (16)  Have  you  seen  them  to-day?  (17)  Yes,  and  I  have 
spoken  to  them.  (18)  I  have  talked  to  her  about  it,  but  it  does  not 
please  her. 

1  Use  §cco.  2  Cf.  82. 


VOCABULARY. 

il  npnno,  the  grandfather  la  dolcezza,  the  sweetness,  mild- 

il  nippte,  the  grandson  ness 

il  gusto,  the  pleasure,  delight  la  domanda,  the  demand 

il  mpdo,  the  manner,  way  la  carezza,  the  caress     [scolding 

in  mpdo  da,  in  such  a  manner  as  la    tiratina,       the      contention, 

il  fpndo,  the  bottom  1'  assenza,  the  absence 

in  fpndo,  at  heart  1'  arditezza,  the  boldness 

il  cprso,  the  course  certo,  certain 

lo  studio,  the  study  rispettpso,  respectful 

la  sera,  the  evening  rosso,  red 

la  cpsa,  the  thing,  matter,  affair  matto,  mad,  immoderate 


224 


ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


vispo,  merry,  lively 
stesso,  same,  the  very 
affinche,  that,  in  order  that 
durante,  during 
npn — mai,  never 
pra,  now 

allentare,  to  loosen 
buttare,  to  throw 
contrariare,  to  vex 
saltare,  to  jump 
esclamare,  to  exclaim 
abbassare,  to  lower,  cast  down 
sbacciuccare,  to  kiss  repeatedly 
ripigliare,  to  resume 


cercare,  to  seek 

liberare,  to  free 

osservare,  to  observe,  notice 

crollare,  to  shake 

applicarsi,  to  apply  one's  self 

contentarsi,  to  content  one's  self 

farsi,  to  become 

accomiatarsi,  to  take  leave 

stringere,  to  press,  draw  close 

fingere,  to  feign 

interrpmpere,  to   interrupt    (irr. 

p.  part,  interrotto) 
proseguire,  to  continue 
pentirsi,  to  repent 


EXERCISE  XX. 

Durante  la  vpstra  assenza-disse  il  npnno  ai  tre  gipvani-parlerp  io 
un  pp'  di  cpse  fiorentine  a'  npstri  ragazzi. — 0  che  se  ne  ricprda  Lei 
di  certi  studj? — domandp  Adolfino  con  arditezza  poco  rispettpsa: 
II  npnno  abbasso  gli  pcchi'  si  fece  un  pp'  rosso  e  disse  con  dolcezza 
ad  Adolfo,  il  quale  gia  s'  era  pentito  della  sua  domanda  inconsiderata. 
Si,  figliuplo,  me  ne  ricprdo.  Ai  miei  tempi  si  studiavano  meno  cpse, 
ma  quelle  ppche  s'  imparavano  bene,  in  mpdo  da  npn  dimenticarle 
mai  piu.     Oh,  frano  altri  tempi  quelli!     Ora 

Ppvero  signor  Leoppldo!  Npn  gli  fu  possibile  proseguire  la 
sua  tiratina.  Adolfo  gli  era  saltato  sulle  ginpcchia,  gli  aveva 
buttate  le  braccia  al  cpllo  e  se  lo  sbaciucchiava  tutto,  come  se  fosse 
stato  un  bambino.  II  npnno  fingendo  d'  esser  contrariato,  cercava 
di  liberarsi  da  quelle  carezze  tumultupse;  ma  in  fpndo  ci  aveva 
un  gusto  matto,  e  si  sarebbe  ben  guardato  di  allentare  le  braccia 
del  vispo  nipotino. — ^Se  il  npnno  sara1  contento  di  vpi — disse  il  signor 
Leone,  accomiatandosi — §  mplto  p  r  o  b  a  b  i  1  e  ch'  io  vi  faccia  venir 
da  me  per  un  paio  di  giprni.  Torneremo  a  Firfnze  insieme. — Oh 
bene,  oh  bene! — esclamarono  i  due  fanciulli,  e  strettisi J  al  npnno,  lp 
pregarono  affinch^  la  sera  stessa  ripigliasse  il  cprso  di  quelle  con- 
versazioni, cosi  presto  interrotto. 

1 ' '  having  pressed  up  close  to ' '  ,past  participle  of  stringersi.   Cf .  1 02. 

2  Cf.  229. 

EXERCISE  XXI. 

(1)  "  Let  us  talk  (to  one  another)  about  the  affairs  of  Florence." 
(2)   "  Oh  yes,  grandfather,  let  us  talk  together  (i.e.,  to  one  another) 


EXERCISES. 


225 


about  them."  (3)  "Well,  boys,  do  you  remember  what  you  have 
studied  about  Florentine  history?  "  (4)  "  We  do  not  remember  it  as 
you  do,1  grandfather  ",  said  little  Adolph.  (5)  "  I  have  noticed  that  ", 
said  their  grandfather.  (6)  Adolph  grew  rather  red.  (7)  He 
repented  his  remark.  (8)  "  More  things  are  studied  now",  said  he. 
(9)  The  old  man  shook  his  head.  (10)  But  Adolph  jumped  on  his 
knees  and  threw  his  arms  about  his  neck.  (11)  The  old  man  freed 
himself  from  those  stormy  caresses.  (12)  But  he  really  took  great 
pleasure  in  them.  (13)  "  Well  ",  said  the  grandfather,  "  let  us  con- 
tent ourselves  with  what  we  have."  (14)  "  Let  us  go  away  now; 
since  Mr.  Leo  is  taking  leave,  let  us  go  with  him."  (15)  "  We  will 
apply  ourselves  to  the  study  of  Florentine  history  when  we  come 
back."  2     (16)   "These  things  cannot  be  done  in  a  moment." 


1  Omit. 


2  Translate  "when  we  shall  come  back." 


VOCABULARY 


il  danno,  the  damage,  loss,  cost 

il  fatto,  the  fact 

il  p9polo,  the  people,  nation,  race 

il  potere,  the  power 

il  regno,  the  kingdom 

il  veleno,  the  poison 

il  sogge,tto,  the  subject 

il  caso.  the  case 

il  famigliare,  the  familiar,  inti- 
mate friend 

1'  invasore,  the  invader  [age 

V  animo,  the  mind,  heart,  cour- 

il  verso,  the  verse 

il  Longobardo,  the  Longobard 

il  Franco,  the  Frank 

1a  gente,  the  race,  nation 

la  signoria,  the  rule,  lordship 

la  salvatichezza,  the  wildness, 
rudeness 

la  pieta,  the  piety 

la  grandezza,  the  greatness 

la  vivacita,  the  vivacity 

la  violf  nza,  the  violence 


la  caduta,  the  fall 

le  armi,  arms 

la  Germania,  Germany 

br§ve,  brief,  short 

scellerato,  wicked 

illegale,  unlawful 

barbaro,  barbarous,  barbarian 

restio,  restive 

analogo,  analogous 

sfortunato,  unfortunate 

vfrso,  towards 

subito,  soon,  quickly 

solo,  alone,  only 

prima,  at  first 

indi,  afterward,  from  there 

uscire,  to  go  (or  come)  out 

cade*re,  to  fall  (irr.  p.  part,  ca- 

duto,  pret.  caddi,  etc.) 
tggliere    (torre),    to    take,    take 

away,  to  carry  off  or  away 
distruggere,   to   destroy    (irr.   p. 

part,  distrutto) 
ammansirsi,  to  grow  mild 


226  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

arrichirsi,  to  enrich  one's  self  narrare,  to  narrate,  tell 

avvicinarsi,  to  approach  lodare,  to  praise 

fermarsi,  to  stop  intitolare,  to  entitle,  call 

conservare,  to  keep  guidare,  to  guide 

passare,  to  pass  fondare,  to  found 

EXERCISE  XXII. 

Chi  §rano  i  Longobardi,  caro  npnno? — domandg  Adolfo. — |prano 
gente  pagan  a — rispose  il  bugn  vf  cchio, — usciti1  dalla  Pannonia. 
Guidati  dal  loro  f  eroce  re  Alboino,  si  fermarono  prima  nella  parte 
superiore  dell'  Italia,  che  per  questo  fatto  ha  conservato  il  nome 
di  Lombard! a;  e  indi,  passati  gli  Appennini,  si  avvicinarono 
verso  la  Toscana,  che  in  gran  parte  cadde  subito  in  loro  potere. 
Presere  Firenze.  Ma  breve  fu  il  regno  dello  scellerato  Alboino; 
poich^  il  veleno,  datogli,  come  si  narra,  da  un  suo  famigliare,  lo 
tglse  di  vita  dopo  soli  cinque  anni  di  signoria. — Ne  sono  contenta! — 
esclam.9  V  Adalgisa. — Ma  col  tempo  s'  ammansi  la  feroce  salvati- 
chezza  dei  Longobardi  ed  ebbero  re  lodati  per  pieta,  valore  e  gran- 
dezza  d'  animo.  La  loro  dominazione  cadde  per  le  armi  dei  Franchi, 
altri  pQpoli  barbari — Scusi,  n9nno, — domandc?  con  molta  vivacita 
Adolfino — i  Franchi  non  avevano  per  re  il  fa  mo  so  Carlomagno, 
figlio  del  re  Pipino? — E,  nQnno — esclam9  V  Adalgisa,  divenendo  un 
P9'  rossa — la  bella  tragfdia  di  Alessandro  Manzoni  intitolata 
A  dele  hi  parla  della  caduta  dei  Longobardi,  non  §  vero? — Si. — 
Oh  la  bella  tragfdia,  n9nno!       Oh  i  bei  versi! 

1  As  a  collective  gente  may  take  a  plural  modifier. 

EXERCISE  XXIII. 

(i)  The  good  old  man  was  talking  to  his  grandsons  about  the 
Longobards.  (2)  They  were  listening,  they  were1  attentive. 
(3)  A  large  part  of  Italy  had  fallen  into  the  power  of  the  wicked 
Longobards.  (4)  They  had  drawn  near  to  Tuscany,  beautiful 
Tuscany.  (5)  But  their  unlawful  dominion,  being2  founded  upon 
violence,  was  destroyed  by  violence.  (6)  The  Franks,  a  race  come 
forth  in  ancient  times  from  Germany,  came  from  France  into  Italy. 
(7)  The  Franks  were  no  longer  a  heathen  people.  (8)  They  had 
a  king  called  Charlemagne,  a  great3  man  and  a  very  wise4  king. 
(9)  He  tamed  the  wild  ferocity  of  his  restive  subjects.  (10)  The 
Franks  were  called  the  liberators  of  Italy,  but  liberation 
means,  in  this  case  and  in  analogous  cases,  only  a  new  invasion 


KXKRCISKS. 


227 


(2)  (1) 

of    barbarians.      (11)    These    were    calamitous    times    for    poor 

(2)  (1) 

Italy.      (12)    The    barbarian    invaders    enriched    themselves    at    the 

cost  of  the  unfortunate  Italians,  but  they  were  never  satisfied. 


1  Use  stare. 


2  Omit. 


:'  Cf.  132. 


*Ci.  130. 


VOCABULARY. 


il  confronto,  the  comparison 

il  predicatore,  the  preacher 

il  frato,  the  brother,  monk 

il  discprso,  the  discourse,  sermon 

il  mpndo,  the  world 

1'  pro,  the  gold 

1'  an^ddoto,  the  anecdote 

P  ampre,  the  love 

1'  istinto,  the  instinct 

la  stile,  the  style 

lp  scrittpre,  the  writer 

Id  statuto,  the  statute 

la  comm§dia,  the  comedy 

la  trag^dia,  the  tragedy 

la  sfrie,  the  series 

la  fede,  the  faith 

la  parpla,  the  word 

P  opera,  the  work 

P  origine,  the  origin 


P  affezipne,  the  affection 

saggio,  wise 

spmmo,  very  great 

profpndo,  profound 

prezipso,  precious 

sublime,  sublime 

onorabile,  honorable 

nominare,  to  name 

raccontare,  to  relate,  tell 

cominciare,  to  begin 

giurare,  to  swear 

acquistarsi,  to  gain  for  one's  self 

scrivere,  to  write   (irr.  p.  part 

scritto) 
intfndere,    to   mean    (what   one 

says) 
circa,  about,  concerning 
piu,  more 
i  piu,  most,  the  most 


EXERCISE  XXIV. 

Mi  dica,1  signer  Ugo,  il  npme  della  grande  ppera  di  Dante. — La 
Divina  Commedia. — Npmini  per  piacere  un  grande  scrittpre 
francese. — II  Racine.  Che  cpsa  ha  scritto? — La  bellissima  trag^dia 
di  Atala. —  Questi  autpri  spno  f  amp  si,  npn  §  vero? — Si,  signpre, 
si  spno  acquistati2  grandissima  fama.  Quale  dei  due  §  piu  grande? 
Dante  §  piu  grande  del  Racine.  Ha  lp  stile  piu  sublime  che  il  poeta 
tragi  co  francese.     Ma  ha  un  b§llo  stile  anche  il  Racine.     II  con- 

1  Subjunctive  used  as  an  imperative.  For  the  form  see  verb 
dire  in  table. 

2  "They  have  gained  for  themselves."  Could  the  form  of  the 
participle  be  other  than  it  is? 


228  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

fronto  tra  grandissimi  upmini,  tra  sommi  poeti,  e  difficile,  npn  § 
vero?  Ha  sentito  1'  an^ddoto  del  frate  predicatore  che  faceva  un 
discprso  su  Sant'  Antonio  ?  Ecco  il  discprso.  "  San  Paolo,  fratelli 
miei,  era  un  gran  santo,  e  San  Pietro,  cari  fratelli  miei,  era  un 
grandissimo  santo.     Ma  Sant' Antonio !  .  .  .  wh  .  .  .  wh  .  .  .  fiuuiiiu!! 

ORAL    EXERCISE. 

(i)    Chi  §  1'  autore  della  Divina  Comm§dia? 

(2)  Ha  scritto  il  Racine  delle  comm§die? 

(3)  Nomini  un  fampso  autore  tedesco. 

(4)  Chi  I  piu  grande,  il  Goethe  o  il  Racine? 

(5)  l£  facile  il  confrpnto  tra  upmini  grandissimi? 

(6)  Era  facile  pel  frate  predicatore  il  confrpnto  tra  certi  santi? 

(7)  Raccpnti  1'  anfddoto  del  suo  discprso. 

EXERCISE  XXV. 

(1)    Victor  Emmanuel  II.  was  a  great  man,  a  good  man,  a  man  of 
generous  instincts.      (2)    He  is  often  called  "  the  honorable  king." 

(3)  And  he  was  indeed  more  honorable  than  certain  other  kings. 

(4)  Here  is  the  anecdote  related  concerning  the  origin  of  his  well- 
known  name.  (5)  Massimo  d'  Azeglio,  a  poet  and  a  politician,  and 
a  man  of  Spartan  character,  had  a  profound  affection  for  the 
young  monarch.  (6)  He  remarked  one  day  to  the  king:  "Honor- 
able kings  have  not  been  numerous  in  the  world."  (7)  It  would 
be  beautiful  to  begin  the  series,  would  it  not?  (S)  Victor  Emmanuel 
was  younger  than  many  monarchs,  but  wiser  than  most.  (9)  He 
never  said  more  than  he  meant.  (10)  He  had  sworn  faith  to  the 
Statute,  and  his  word  was  more  precious  to  him  than  gold,  more 
dear  than  power.  (11)  "  I  shall  keep  my  word,"  he  said.  (12)  The 
word  of  a  smaller  man  than  Victor  Emmanuel  is  as  precious  as  his 
word  was.     (13)    The  wisest  men  feel  that. 

EXERCISE  XXVI. 

(For  this  and  the  following  exercises  no  special  vocabulary  is 

given.      The  pupil  is  expected  to  use  the  general  vocabulary  found 

at  the  end  of  the  book  and  the  table  of  irregular  verbs,  pp    198  and 

245  sq.) 

Roma,  2  marzo  1900. 
Caro  Carlo, 

La  tua  cara  l^ttera  1'  ho  ricevuta  ptto  giprni  fa.     Npn   hp 

potuto  nsppnderti  presto  perche  mi  spno  fatto  male  alia  mano.      Ed 

§cco  cpme.      II  babbo  ha  un  cosi  bel  temperino,  mentre  che  il  mio 


EXERCISES.  229 

§  un  orrore,  un  vero  orrore.  Gli  ho  detto  parecchie  V9lte:  Pap& 
mio,  prestami  il  tuo  temperino,  voglio  aguzzare  i  miei  lapis.  E 
finalmente  me  1'  ha  dato  in  mano  e — mi  spno  tagliato  subito  1'  indice 
della  destra.1  Ma  adesso  sta  quasi  bene. — II  nostro  viaggio  mi 
ha  fatto  tanto  piacere.  Anche  ai  miei  genitori.  La  citta  di  Roma 
mi  piace  moltissimo,  coi  suoi  vecchi  palazzi,  colle  sue  grandi  vie  e 
col  suo  bel  sole  sopra  tutto.  Lo  zio  Andrea  ci  ha  condotti,  le  sorel- 
line  e  me,  al  Campidoglio  e  al  Vaticano.  Ci  fu  detto  che  Sua 
Santita  Leone  XIII  faceva  precisamente  la  sua  passeggiata  in 
carrozza  in  mezzo  alle  sue  guardie  ma  naturalmente  non  abbiamo 
potuto  vederlo.  Siamo  andati  dai  tuoi  amici  gli  Altavilla.  II  signor 
Altavilla  |  stato  molto  bupno  per  noi.  Ci  ha  detto — casa  mia  ^  casa 
vostra. — -Sua  moglie  §  tanto  gentile.  Anche  i  loro  figli  mi  spno 
simpatici.  Abbiamo  parlato  di  te  e  della  tua  famiglia.  Come 
stanno  i  tuoi  cugini?  Ho  comprato  dei  libri  per  loro.  Non  abbiamo 
visto  Sua  Maesta  il  re  Umberto,  ma  abbiamo  visto  la  sua  camera 
da  letto.  Abbiamo  visto  tante  belle  cose  che  ne  sono  stance 
Buona  notte! 

II  tuo  affmo.2  amico, 

Enrico. 

1  =mano  destra. 

2  For  affettionatissimo,  the  ordinary  Italian  abbreviation. 

EXERCISE  XXVII. 

(1)  Where  is  your  brother?  (2)  Is  my  little  sister  with  him? 
(3)  I  have  lost  my  little  sister.  (4)  Have  you  my  book,  my  pen, 
and  my  pencils?  (5)  My  friend  has  cut  his  finger.  (6)  I  am  look- 
ing for  my  mother.  (7)  Your  parents  are  not  here,  they  are  with 
their  friends.  (8)  Where  are  our  hats  ?  (9)  Mine  is  here,  but  I 
do  not  see  yours.  (10)  Is  not  this  your  hat?  (11)  No,  it  is  his. 
(12)  I  have  seen  His  Excellency  the  Governor  and  his  wife.  (13)  I 
like  her  face.  (14)  Is  this  one  of  your  dogs?  (15)  Yes,  the  two 
dogs  are  mine.  (16)  Give  me  your  hand.  (17)  Have  you  a  book 
under  your  arm?  (18)  Yes,  but  it  is  yours,  not  mine.  (19)  Thy 
friends  (feminine)  are  here. 

EXERCISE  XXVIII. 

II  libro  che  cerchi  non  c'  §. — Non  ne  sono  sicuro,  lo  cercher^ 
ancora  un  po\ — Non  puoi1  adoperarne  qualche  altro? — No,  nessun 
altro  servira,  solamente  quello  li.  Bisogna  ben2  trovarlo,  |  quello 
che    devo    avere   per    preparare    la  mia  lezione.     Chi   1'  ha   avuto 


230  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

1'  ultimo?  Sara3  quello  che  me  1'  avra3  perduto. — Chi  §  quell'  amico 
a  cui  lo  imprestasti  i§ri  1'  altro?  §  il  figlio  della  signora  la  quale  ci 
ha  fatto4  visita  questa  mattina.  Avra3  mai  dimenticato  di  r^nderlo? 
— §  sempre  possibile,  glielo  domanderp,  e  se  §  davvero  lui  che  1'  ha, 
npn  glielo  impresterp  piu  per  un  p§zzo.  Chi  non  pe,nsa  a  r^ndere 
non  dovrebbe5  pigliar  in  pr^stito. — Ma  guarda  dalla  finestra,  non  § 
lui  che  vifne  adesso? — Ma  si,  e  col  mio  libro  sotto  il  braccio. — Me 
n?  rallegro  per  te  come  se  il  libro  perduto  fosse  mio. —  Buon  giorno, 
Enrico,  §ccoti  il  libro  che  mi  hai  imprestato.  Te  ne  ringrazio  e  ti 
prfgo  di  perdonarmi  la  mia  dimenticanza.  Avr§i6  dovuto8  ripor- 
tartelo  gia  i§ri.  Ma  hg  avuto  una  visita  di  mio  cugino,  il  che  m'  ha 
fatto  restare  in  casa  tutto  ieri.  Quale  cugino  §ra? — Non  lp  conosci 
tu.  $  fratfllo  di  quello  ch'  §ra  da  noi  P  anno  scorso,  quello  che 
aveva  il  cane  da  cui  fui  morso.  Ma  con  tutto  cip  §ra  un  bel  cane, 
quello,  vero?  E  parlando  di  cani,  di  chi  §  quello  che  ho  visto  nel 
vostro  giardino? — 5  mi°>  n9n  I  v?r0  cn?  I  bello?  Mio  padre  me 
1'  ha  dato.7  Tutte  le  cose  che  mi  da7  sono  belle.  Ha  gusto  lui! 
Vieni  con  me  e  lo  vedremo,  quel  cane!  Chi  vuol  vederlo  venga8 
con  noi. 

1  "Can  you  not" — second  person  singular  indicative  present  of 
the  irregular  potere. 

2  "I  must  really." 

3  Future  of  probability — "it  must  have  been  he  who."  Cf. 
229  (2). 

4  " Made",  from  fare.  8  "Ought  not  to  borrow.  " 
B  "I  ought  to  have."  7  From  dare.  See  tables. 
8  "Let  him  come."     See  venire  in  tables. 

EXERCISE  XXIX. 

(1)  Who  is  knocking?  (2)  It  is  I,  Henry,  and  nobody  else;1 
who  did  you  think  it  was?  (3)  I  thought  it  was 2  my  cousin  whom 
I  have  been  expecting.  (4)  I  am  glad  to  see  you;  I  wanted3  to1 
speak  to  you  about  that  new  boy  who  is  in  our  class  now.  (5)  That5 
one5  who  is  so  pale  and  thin?  (6)  Yes,  that  is  the  one.  (7)  We 
ought6  to4  do  something  for  him,  we  who  are  more  fortunate  than 
he.  (8)  My  father  was  speaking  about  him  to  my  mother,  and  she 
said  she  would  go  to7  see  his  mother.  (9)  He  who  does  not  think 
of  the  misfortunes  of  others  does  not  deserve  to8  be  happy  himself, 
as  our  copy-book  says.  (10)  Who  was  it  who  was  asking  you 
yesterday  about  that  other  poor  boy,  the  one  with9  the  ragged  coat? 


EXERCISES.  231 

(n)    John  said  something  about  it.      (12)    Every  boy  in  the  school 
has  noticed  that  coat,  but  nobody  had  ever  spoken  of  it. 

1  =" nobody  other."  2  Use  subjunctive  imperfect. 

3  Voleva.  4  Omit.  6  Quel  tale.  fi  Dovremmo. 

7  A.  8  Di.  "Translate  "of  ". 


EXERCISE  XXX. 

Oh  mamma,  siamo  prpprio  arrivati  alia  campagna?  Si,  cara 
mia  Rosina,  e  spero  che  impareremo  qui  tante  belle  cosine!  Sulla 
terra  tutto  §  meritevole  d'  osservazione  e  di  studio,  perfino  le  piu 
piccole  erbicelle,  perfino  la  pietruzza  che  guardi  li.  Tu  sei  un 
ragazzetta  nella  terza  classe  adesso,  e  Ricciardetto  avra  prossima- 
mente  sette  anni.  §  vero  che  Naldo  e  anc9ra  un  bambinticcio 
molto  piccino — e  anche  molto  chiasspne — ma  ha  v^glia  d'  imparare, 
poverino.  Eccolo  adesso!  E  che  £ria  d'  omino!1  Ah  capisco! 
lp  il  primo  giorno  che  indossa  la  giacchetta  e  i  calzoncini.  Oh 
riverito,  signor  Rinaldo!  Come  sta?  Lei  si  |  dunque  fatto  un 
giovinotto,2  un  uomo! — Oh  mammetta!  Perch^  mi  dai  del  lei3? — 
Ma,  carino,  |  per  far  onore  alia  tua  giacchetta  e  a'  calzoncini.  Non 
sono  cosi  lunghi  come  i  calzoncioni  del  papa,  e  vero,  ma  sono 
abbastanza  lunghi  per  le  tue  gambette.  Bravo  Naldinol  Vieni 
colla  sorellina  e  con  me  per  vedere  gli  uccelletti. 

1  Uomo+-ino  ==  omino. 

2  "You  have  become  a  young  man  "  (lit.  "have  made  yourself"). 

3  Why  do  you  call  me  lei,  not  tu?     See  91. 

EXERCISE  XXXI. 

(1)  Here  is  a  pretty-little-stream;  let  us  walk  on  the  bank. 
(2)  Leave  your  big-ugly-books!1  (3)  The  trees  are  getting-green.2 
(4)  How3  beautiful  the  weather  is  to-day!  (5)  And  yesterday  it 
was  nasty-weather!  (6)  Are  you  pretty-well4  to-day?  (7)  I  am 
quite  well,5  thanks!  (S)  You  are  plump.  (9)  You  are  also  rather- 
tall.  (10)  You  will  be  a  big-man,  like  your  father.  (11)  Here  is 
your  pretty-little-dog.  (12)  He  loves  his  little-master.  (13)  He 
is  afraid  of  the  country-boy.8  (14)  Look  at  the  dear-little-flowers! 
(15)  But  where  is  your  little-dog?  (16)  He  is  running  away,7  the 
little-rascal!  (17)  He  is  afraid  of  the  peasant-boy's  big-stick,  poor- 
little-thing!  (18)  What  a  bad  road!  (19)  Full  of  ugly-stones! 
(20)    The  dog  is  running  away  very-fast.8     (21)    Call  him,  deariel 


2J2 


ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


(22)    He  will  hear.      (23)    The   little-old- woman 9   is   bringing   him. 
(24)   Let  us  rest I0  now  on  the  short- grass       (25)   I  am  a- little  tired. 

1  Use  actio.  2  Translate  '  are  greenish".  3  Che. 

4  Bfne  with -ino.  5  B§ne  with    one. 

6  Contadino  with  a  diminutive  suffix.     7Scappare.      8  Prestissimo. 

9  Omit  "woman",  using  only  the  appropriate  word  formed  from 
Vfcchio. 

10  Reflexive. 


Infinitive. 
dire,  to  say,  speak,  tell       dicemdo 
parere,1  to  appear,  seem 
piacere,1  to  please 
uscire,1  to  go  out 
volere,  to  wish 


VOCABULARY. 

Pres  Part.         Past  Part.  Preterite 

detto  dissi 
paruto  or  parso    parvi 

piaciuto  piacqui 

uscito  uscii 

voluto  volli 


Future. 


parrQ 


1  Compounds  with  f ssere. 

EXERCISE  XXXII. 

Note. — All  forms  required  are  to  be  constructed  from  those  given 
by  the  rules  given  in  179.  The  present  participle  and  future  when 
not  given  are  regular. 

(1)  He  was  saying.  (2)  It1  pleases  me.  (3)  They  have  gone 
out.  (4)  It  had  seemed  to  me.  (5)  They  wished.2  (6)  Will  you 
go  out  ?  (7)  Wishing  and  having  wished.  (8)  They  said.  (9) 
They  had  said.  (10)  They  would  say.  (n)  They  might  go  out 
(imperfect  subjunctive) .  (12)  They  appeared.2  (13)  They  would 
appear.  (14)  It  appears  to  me.  (15)  Would  they  go  out? 
(16)  Pleasing  me.  (17)  Did  you  say2  so?  (18)  They  wished3  it. 
(19)  He  will  go  out.  (20)  It  has  pleased  me.  (21)  I  have  said  so.3 
(22)  Does  it  seem  to  you?  (23)  Did  they  wish  it?  (24)  Would  it 
please  you?  (25)  It  might  please  you  (imperfect  subjunctive). 
(26)    They  wished  to  say  it.      (27)    She  has  gone  out. 


Omit. 


Express  in  two  ways. 


3  ='*I  have  said  it.' 


EXERCISE  XXXIII. 

La  Signora  Carniola,  direttrice  di  una  scu9la,  mi  raccontava  re- 
centemente  questo  fatto:  aveva  visto  in  una  delle  sue  classi  un 
p9vero  bambino  di  9U0  anni  con  i  piedi  che  uscivano  dalle  scarpe, 
e  aveva  fatto  in   m9do   di   procurargliene   un   paio   dal    Patronato 


EXERCISES. 


233 


scolastico.  II  bambino  chiamato  in  Direzipne  a  ricevere  queste 
scarpe,  rosso  di  gioia,  ringraziava  con  tanta  effusione  che  la  diret- 
trice,  commossa  della  sua  ingfnua  riconosc^nza,  gli  regalp  due 
soldi.  II  giorno  dopo  il  bambino  va  in  Direzione  tutto  cont^nto, 
batt^ndo  i  tacchi  sul  pavimento,  e  con  un  pacchettino  in  mano. 
"  Signora  direttrice,  la  mia  madre  le  manda  questo  con  tante  rive- 
re,nze."  La  signora  apre  e  trpva  nel  pacchettino  quattro  biscotti — 
di  quelli  buoni  per  i  canarini  !  Dopo  qualche  giorno  la  madre 
vie,na  a  ringraziare  la  direttrice  del  paio  di  scarpe,  e  la  direttrice, 
scherm^ndosi,  la  vuole  ringraziare  del  gentile  pensiejo  del  pacchetto 
di  biscotti.  "Ma  che  b-scotti?":  la  ppvera  donna  dice  non  saperne 
nulla:  si  interroga  il  bambino,  il  quale  tutto  rosso  conffssa  che  li 
aveva  comprati  lui  con  i  due  soldi  della  direttrice. — Gli  §ra  parsa  la 
forma  piii  adatta  di  dimostrar  la  sua  riconosce-nza:  non  un  fiore, 
n|  un'  immagine,  che  avrejbbe  pure  potuto  acquistare  con  i  due 
soldi,  ma  i  biscottini,  che  ess^ndo  la  cosa  piu  desiderata  per  lui,  gli 
pareva  dovesse  §sserlo  anche  per  la  direttrice.  E  questa  gentilezza 
egli  1'  aveva  voluto  fare  a  nome  della  madre,  perche  gli  sembrava 
m§glio  ch'  essa  partisse  da  una  persona  piu  importante  di  lui.  Cosi 
aveva  rinunciato  per  l§i  all'  onore  e  al  piacere  della  sua  iniziativa. 


(1 
(2 
(3 
(4 

(5 

(6 

(7 
(8) 

(9 
(10 

(11 
(12 


ORAL    EXERCISE 

Chi  raccontava  V  an^ddoto  del  ppvero  bambino  riconosc^nte? 

Che  eta  (quanti  anni)  aveva  il  bambino? 

Era  cont§nto  d'  avere  le  b§lle  scarpe  nupve? 

Come  ringiazip  la  direttrice? 

Che  cpsa  gli  regal<?  essa? 

Cpsa  ti^ne  in  mano  il  giorno  dopo  quando  va  in  Direzione? 

Cosa  dice? 

Ch'  §ra  nel  pacchettino? 

Quando  vifne  la  madre  e  perche? 

Chi  aveva  regalato  i  biscotti  alia  signora  direttrice? 

Con  che  denari  li  aveva  comprati  ? 

Perche  ha  scelto  dei  biscotti  ? 


EXERCISE  XXXIV. 

(1)  I  will  tell  you  an  anecdote,  if  you  like.  (2)  It  is  a  fact  told 
me  recently  by  the  directress  of  a  school.  (3)  She  said  that  there 
was  in  one  of  the  classes  a  poor  little  girl  of  six  years  who  came  to 
school  with  her1  feet  coming  through  her  shoes.      (4)    The  teacher 


234  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

managed  to  get  her  a  pair  of  new  ones.  (5)  The  child  came  to 
school  a  few  days  after  red  with  joy,  clicking  the  heels  of  her1  new 
shoes  on  the  floor.  (6)  She  was  carrying  in  her  hand  some  flowers 
and  a  little  picture  of  Saint  Catherine  of  Sienna.  (7)  She  went 
into  the  directress'  room  and  made  her  a  present  of  them.2  (8)  This 
appeared  to  her  the  best  way  to  show  her  gratitude.  (9)  The 
picture  was  very  beautiful  to  her  and  it  seemed  to  her  that  it  must 
be  so  also  to  the  directress.  (10)  But  the  flowers  were  really  more 
beautiful  than  the  picture,  and  the  kindly  thought  more  beautiful 
than  the  flowers.  (11)  I  like  flowers  very  much;  do  you  like 
them  too? 

1  How  is  this  to  be  translated? 

2  Regalare  takes  a  direct  object.     Cf.  Exercise  XXXIII. 

EXERCISE  XXXV. 

Note. — The  pupil  will  explain  the  use  of  the  prepositions  found 
in  this  extract,  referring  to  the  paragraphs  above.  This  and 
Exercises  XXXVI,  XXXVII,  and  XXXVIII  are  an  adaptation  of 
De  Amicis'  Vlnfermigre  di  Tata.     {Cugre.) 

La  mattina  d'  un  giorno  piovoso  di  marzo,  un  ragazzo  vestito  da 
campagnuolo,  tutto  inzuppato  d'  acqua  e  infangato,  con  un  involto 
di  panni  sotto  il  braccio,  si  presentava  al  portinaio  dell'  Ospedale  dei 
Pellegrini  di  Napoli,  e  domandava  di  suo  padre,  presentando  una 
lfttera.  Aveva  un  bel  viso  ovale  d' un  bruno  p  alii  do,  gli  occhi 
pensierosi,  e  due  grosse  labbra  semiaperte,  che  lasciavan  vedere  i 
denti  bianchissimi.  Veniva  da  un  villaggio  dei  dintprni  di  Napoli. 
Suo  padre,  partito  di  casa  1'  anno  addietro  per  andare  a  cercar  lavoro 
in  Francia,  era  tomato  in  Italia  e  sbarcato  pochi  di  prima  a  Napoli 
dove,  ammalatosi  improvvisamente,  aveva  appena  fatto  in  tempo 
a  scrivere  un  rigo  alia  famiglia  per  annunziarle  il  suo  arrivo  e  dirle 
che  entrava  all'  ospedale.  Sua  moglie  desolata  di  quella  notizia, 
non  potendo  moversi  di  casa  perche  aveva  una  bimba  inferma  e 
un  piccino,  aveva  mandato  a  Napoli  il  figluolo  maggiore,  con 
qualche  soldo,  ad  assistere  suo  padre.  II  ragazzo  aveva  fatto 
dieci  miglia  di  cammino.  II  portinaio,  data  un'  occhiata  alia 
l^ttera,  chiamp  un  infermiere  e  gli  disse  che  condusse1  il  ragazzo 
dal  padre. 

— Che  padre? — domando  1'  infermiere. 

II  ragazzo,  tremante2  per  il  timore  d'  una  trista  notizia,  disse 
il  nome. 


EXERCISES.  235 

L'  infermiere  npn  si  rammentava  quel  nome. 

—  Un  v^cchio  operaio  venuto  di  fuore?— domandi). 

— Operaio  si — rispose  il  ragazzo,  sempre  piu  ansioso;  — non  tanto 
vfcchio. 

— Entrato  all*  ospedale  quando? — domandp  1'  infermiere. 

II  ragazzo  difde  uno  sguardo  alia  l^ttera. — Cinque  giorni  fa,  credo. 

L' infermiere  stette  un  po' pensando,  poi,  come  ricordandosi  ad  un 
tratto : — 

Ah!    disse, — il  quarto  camerone,  il  letto  in  fondo. 

— $  malato  molto?  Come  sta? — domando  affanosamente  il 
ragazzo. 

L'  infermiere  lo  guardi),  senza  rispondere.  Poi  disse: — Vi§ni 
con  me. 

1  Cf.  231  (a)  and  232. 

2  Cf.  in.     Could  another  form  be  used  here? 

EXERCISE  XXXVI. 

(1)  There  were  two  flights  of  stairs  to  be  ascended,  then  they 
passed  through  a  long  corridor  and  found  themselves  at  last  opposite 
the  open1  door  of  a  large- room,  where  were  ranged  two  rows  of 
beds.  (2)  "Come,"  repeated  the  nurse,  entering2  the  room. 
(3)  The  boy  took  courage  and  followed  him,  gazing  to  the3  right 
and  to  the3  left  upon  the  white  faces  of  the  sick.  (4)  Some  of  these 
had  their  eyes  closed,  others  were  looking  into  space4  with  great 
staring  eyes.  (5)  The  big-room  was  dark,  the  air  impregnated 
with  an  odor  of  medicines.  (6)  Having  come5  to  the  end  of  the 
great  room  the  nurse  stopped  at  a  little-bed  and  said:  "Heie  is 
your6  father."  (7)  The  boy  laid  his  head  on  the  sick-man's 
shoulder  and  began  to  weep.  (S)  The  sick-man  looked  at3  him, 
but  his  lips  did  not  move.7  (9)  Poor  papa,  how8  changed  he  was! 
(10)  His  face  was  swollen9  and  very  red,  he  was  breathing  with 
difficulty.       (11)    His     son     would     never     have     recognized     him. 

(12)  "  Father,  father!  "   said  the  boy,  "  do   you   not  know10   me?" 

(13)  The  sick-man  did  not  move,  he  continued  breathing11  pain- 
fully. (14)  "Papa!  What  is  wrong  with  you?  I  am  your  son 
Beppo!"  (15)  Then  bursting  into  tears  the  boy  took  a  seat  and 
waited,12  without  raising13  his  eyes  from  his  father's  face.  (16)  He 
was  lost14  in  his  own  sad  thoughts,  recalling  so  many  things  about 
his  good  father — the  day  of  his  departure,  the  last  good-by,  the 
hopes  which  the  family  had  founded   on  this  journey  of  his,  the 


236  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

desolation  of  his  mother  at  the  arrival  of  the  letter.  (17)  And  he 
thought  of  death,15  he  saw  his  father  dead,  his  mother  dressed  in19 
black,  the  family  in  misery. 

I  ="  opened."  2  =" entering  in."  3  Omit. 
4  Translate  ' '  through  air. "               5  =  "  arrived. ' ' 

8  What  pronoun  would  be  used?     7  Reflexive.     8  ="how  much." 

9  =  "Hehad  the  face  swollen."      10  ="recognize."     Use  vpi. 

II  ="to  breathe."      12  Use  stare  with  the  present  participle. 

13  Cf.  222  (3).    14  Translate  with  reflexive  verb  "to  sink  one's  self  ". 
15  Cf.  216.  16Cf.  198  (4). 

EXERCISE  XXXVII. 

E  st§tte  molto  t§mpo  cosi.  Quando  una  mano  leggifra  gli  toccp 
una  spalla,  ed  ei  si  riscpsse:  era  una  mpnaca. — Che  cps'  ha1  mio 
padre? — le  domandp  subito. — ^  tuo  padre?— disse  la  supra,  dolce- 
mente. — Si,  §  mio  padre,  son  venuto.  Che  cos'  ha?  Coraggio> 
ragazzo, — risppse  la  supra,  pra  verra  il  mfdico. — E  s'  allontanp, 
senza  dir  altro. 

•  Dppo  m§zz'  pra  vide  entrare  in  fpndo  al  camerpne  il  mfdico, 
accompagnato  da  un  assistfnte;  la  supra  e  un  infermiere  li  segui- 
vano.  Cominciaron  la  visita,  fermandosi  a  pgni  letto.  Finalmente 
arrivdrono  al  letto  vicino.  Prima  ch'  il  m§dico  si  staccasse  da 
questo  il  ragazzo  si  levp  in  pie,  di,  e  quando  gli  s*  avvicinp,  si  mise  a 
piangere. — ^  il  figliuplo  del  malato,  disse  la  supra.  Fatti  animo, 
figliuplo,  disse  il  medico.  1$  grave,  ma  c'  §  ancpra  speranza.  II 
ragazzo  avr§bbe  voluto  domandar  altro;  ma  non  osp.  E  allpra 
comincip  la  sua  vita  d'  infermiere. 

Npn  potfndo  far  altro  accomodava  le  cop^rte  al  malato,  gli  dava 
da  bere.  II  malato  lp  guardava  qualche  vplta;  ma  npn  dava  segno 
di  ricondscerlo.  Senonch^  il  suo  sguardo  si  arrestava  s§mpre  piii 
a  lungo  sppra  di  lui.  E  cosi  passp  il  primo  giprno.  II  giprno  dppo 
parve  che  gli  pcchi  del  malato  rivelassero  un  principio  di  cosci§nza. 
Alia  voce  carezzevole  del  ragazzo  pareva  che  un'  espressipne 
vaga  di  gratitu dine  gli  brillasse  un  momento  nelle  pupille,  e 
una  vplta  mpsse  un  ppco  le  labbra  come  se  volesse  dir  qualche  cpsa. 
Dppo  pgni  breve  assopimento,  riapr§ndo  gli  pcchi,  sembrava  che 
cercasse  il  suo  piccolo  infermiere.  Vfrso  sera,  avvicinandogli  il 
bicchi^re  alle  labbra,  il  ragazzo  credftte  di  veder  sulle  labbra  gpnfie 
un  leggierissimo  sorriso.  E  allpra  comincip  a  riconfortarsi,  a 
sperare.  E  con  la  speranza  d'  ^ssere  inteso,  almeno  confusamente, 
gli    parlava,  gli  parlava   a  lungo,  e  lp  esortava  a  farsi  animo.     E 


EXERCISES.  237 

bench§  dubitasse  sovente  di  non  esser  capito,  pure  parlava,  perchfc 
gli  pareva  che,  anche  npn  comprendendo,  il  malato  ascoltasse  con 
un  c§rto  piacere  la  sua  voce. 

1  Cf.  84. 

EXERCISE  XXXVIII. 

(1)  And  so  passed  the  second1  day,  and  the  third,  and  the  fourth. 
(2)  The  hours,  the  days  passed,  and  the  boy  was  always  there  with 
his  father,  palpitating  at  his  every  sigh,  tossed  without  ceasing 
between  hope  and  discouragement.  (3)  The  fifth  day,  unex- 
pectedly, the  sick-man  grew  worse.  (4)  The  doctor  when2  inter- 
rogated shook  his  head,  as  if2  to3  say  that  it  was  finished.4  (5)  The 
boy  wept  and  yet  one  thing  consoled  him.  (6)  In  spite  of2  the2 
fact2  that  he  was  growing  worse  it  seemed  to  him5  that  the  sick-man 
was6  slowly  regaining  a  little  intelligence.  (7)  He  looked 
always  more  fixedly  at2  the  boy,  he  wished  to  take  his  medicine 
only  from  him,  and  he  often  made  a  movement  of  the  lips  as  if  he 
wished  to  say  something.  (S)  And  the  boy  continued  to  watch 
him.  (9)  Suddenly  about  four  in7  the  afternoon  a  man  entered  the 
room,  followed  by  one  of  the  sisters.  (10)  On  seeing  him  the  boy 
gave  a  sharp  cry,  the  man  turned 8  and  also 9  gave  a  cry — "  Father !  " 
— "Bfppo!  My  little  Beppo!  " — (11)  "But  how  is  this,"  exclaimed 
the  father,  looking  at  the  sick-man,  "  they  have  taken  you  to  the 
bed  of  another!"  (12)  "Oh,  how  glad  I  am!  how  glad  I  am!" 
stammered  the  boy.  (13)  And  he  could  say  no  more.  (14)  "  And 
now,  my  son,  I  am  well,  come,  let  us  go  home.  (15)  We  can  still 
reach  home  this  evening."  (16)  The  boy  turned8  to  look  at  the 
sick-man,  who  at  that  moment  opened  his  eyes  and  looked  at2 
him.  (17)  "  No,  papa,"  said  he,  "  wait — I  cannot.  (18)  There  is10 
that  old  man.2  (19)  I  have  been11  with  him  about  five  days.  (20)1 
thought  he  was  you.  (21)  He  always  looks  at  me,  he  looks  at2  me 
and  then  I  give  him  something  2  to12  drink.  (22)  I  do  not  know  who 
he  is,  but  he  wants  me,  he  would  die  alone;  let  me  stay  here,  dear 
papa!"     (23)   "Stay,"  said  the  father,  "stay;  you   have   a  heart. 

(24)  I  shall  go  home  at  once  to  relieve  your  mother  of  anxiety. 

(25)  Here  is  money  for  your  needs.     Good-by,  my  brave  son." 

1  Cf.  252  and  129.  2  Omit.  3  Cf.  215  (a). 

4  Use  feminine  form.      This  and  similar  cases  are  a  sort  of  neuter. 

5  Use  disjunctive  form.     Why?  6  Cf.  81  (d).      7  Cf.  198  (3). 
8  Reflexive  verb.          9  Place  "he  also "  at  end  of  sentence. 

10  C  $.     Cf.   242.  »  Cf.  225.  12  Cf.  213  (d). 


238  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE  XXXIX. 

Quante  vplte  la  settimana  hanno  lezione  d'  italiano? — Quattro 
V9lte,  il  lunedi,  il  martedi,  il  giovedi  e  il  venerdi.  Npn  abbiamo  lezione 
il  mercoledi,  ne  il  sabato,  e  la  Dominica  §  f§sta. —  Quanti  abbiamo 
del  mese? — l£  oggi  il  quindici.  Qggi  §  venerdi.  Domani  1'  altro  § 
Dominica.  Mercoledi  prpssimo  sara  il  venti  luglio,  §  1'  anniver- 
sario  della  nascita  del  po§ta  Petrarca.  Ha  le  <$pere  del  Petrarca, 
signorina? — Sissignpre,1  ne  ho  qui  un  volume.  J^  il  secondo. 
l£cco  il  mio  sonetto  predile,tto  alia  pagina  dug§nto  trentas§tte. 
L§ggo  spesso  il  Petrarca. — Mi  dica  qualche  cosa  della  sua  vita. — 
Volentiejri,  ma  capira  che  npn  ppsso  aver  sulla  punta  delle  dita 
tutti  i  particolari  piii  minuti  della  vita  di  mess§r  Francesco.  Egli 
nacque  in  Ar§zzo. — Allora  non  ejra  fiorentino? — Man!  Arfzzo  § 
cosi  vicino  a  Fir§nze!  Neppur  Giovanni  Boccdccio  §  nato  a 
Fir§nze,  ma  chi  oser§bbe  npn  chiamar  fiorentine  le  sue  nov§lle 
immortali  ? — Bravo!  Continui. — Ebb§ne,  Francesco  Petrarca  nac- 
que ad  Arezzo  il  venti  luglio  del  milletrecento quattro.  Suo  padre, 
amico  di  Dante  e  anch'  esso  del  partito  ghibellino,  § ra  stato  bandito 
da  Fire, nze,  dove  esercitava  un  mod^sto  ufficio  pubblico.  Ripa- 
ratosi  a  Pisa,  affidp  i  primi  studj  del  figlio  suo,  allora  in  eta  di  sftte 
anni,  ad  un  vfcchio  grammatico  di  quella  citta.  Due  anni  dppo, 
av§ndo  la  mprte  dell'  imperatpre  Enrico  sfttimo  tplta  pgni  speranza 
ai  Ghibellini,  il  padre  del  Petrarca  condusse  la  sua  famiglia  ad 
Avignpne,  dove  Clem§nte  quinto  aveva  trasferito  la  cprte  pontifi- 
cia.  Nel  milletrecentoventisftte,  il  Petrarca,  che  aveva  ventitrfc 
anni,  s'  invaghi  d'  una  bellissima  gipvane  avignonese,  chiamata 
Laura.  Se  ella  fosse  stata  libera,  cfrto  il  Petrarca  npn  avrejbbe 
esitato  un  m  omen  to  a  farla  sua  mpglie,  ma  §ra  sppsa  ad  Ugo 
di  Spde.  Nulladimeno,  secondo  V  usanza  di  quel  sf  colo  e  special- 
mente  di  quel  paese,  comincip  a  scrivere  per  l§i  poesie  che  subito 
lp  rSsero  illustre.     Due  amori  dominano  tutta  la  vita  del  Petrarca, 

V  ampre  di  Laura  e  quello  della  patria.  Fu  trovato  mprto  il  dici- 
otto  luglio  del  milletrecentosettantaquattro  nella  sua  bibliot^ca 
ad   Arqua.     Aveva  la  t§sta  piegata  sppra  un  libro  ap§rto,  che  §ra 

V  Eneide  di  Virgilio. 

1  Frequently  used  for  si  signpre. 

EXERCISE  XL. 

(1)    The  fourteenth  century  was  the  golden  age  of  Italian  litera- 
ture.    (2)    Dante  was  born  in  Florence  in  the  month  of  May,  1265, 


EXERCISES.  239 

and  died  at  Ravenna  on  the  13th  of  September,  1321.  (3)  Petrarch, 
who  was  younger  than  Dante,  was  the  second  of  the  great  trio,  and 
Boccaccio  was  the  third  and  last.  (4)  Giovanni  Boccaccio  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1313  and  died  in  Certaldo  the  21st  of  December,  1375. 
(5)  So  Boccaccio  was  eight  yean  old  and  Petrarch  was  seventeen 
when  Dante  died.  (6)  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio  were  intimate  friends. 
(7)  Petrarch  was  a  model  for  Boccaccio.  (S)  Petrarch  died  one  year 
five  months  and  three  days  before  Boccaccio.  (9)  Every  Italian 
child  ought  to  know  the  dates  of  the  birth  of  Dante,  of  Petrarch, 
and  of  Boccaccio,  and  almost  every  Italian  child  does  know  them. 
(10)  The  four-hundredth  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  Dante  was 
celebrated  in  1865.  (11)  The  five-hundredth  anniversary  will  be 
celebrated  in  1965.  (12)  Professor  Bernardi  lectures  on  Dante  on 
Wednesdays  and  Saturdays  from  nine  to  ten.  (13)  Let  us  go  and1 
hear  him  to-morrow.  (14)  I  should  like  to  go,  but  unfortunately 
I  have  a  lesson,  so  I  cannot.  (1 5)  Let  us  go  this  afternoon,  then,  to 
see  the  statue  of  Dante  in  the  court  of  the  Uffizi  Palace.  (16)  Thank 
you,  I  will  go  with  pleasure!  At  what  hour  shall  I  expect  you? 
(17)  At  half-past  three  or  twenty  minutes  to  four.  (18)  Well,  then, 
good-byl 2 

1  Translate  "  to  ".  2  Arrivederla. 

EXERCISE  XLI. 

Com'§  bfl  tempo  9ggi!  Facciamo  una  passeggiata. — Che  ne  dite, 
figliupli  miei  ?  Andremo  in  campagna,  e  staremo  li  tutto  il  giorno. 
Si,  si,  mamma!  Andiamo! — Siete  pronti  ? — Sta  bfne,  vado  io  a 
pr^ndere  il  cappfllo.  Dammi1  quel  mantellino  per  piacere.  E 
adesso  mettiamoci2  in  cammino. — Si  va  un  po'  a  vedere  ci9  che  vie,  n3 
coltivato  nel  campo  vicino  alia  strada  ?  Queste  sono  rape:  come 
son  bu9ne!  C9tte4  insieme  con  la  carne  di  b9ve  0  col  riso,  rifscono5 
molto  saporite;  qui  da  noi  se  ne  fa  un  gran  consumo,  e  date  di 
tanto  in  tanto  alle  vacche,  procurano  loro  una  grande  abbondanza 
di  latte.  Ci  danno  il  latte  per  il  caff§  della  mattina. — Ma  fa  caldo 
nevvero,  mamma?  Ecco  una  bella  qu^rcia.  Andiamo  a  riposarci 
li  s9tto.  Come  si  sta  bene  qui!  Stemmo  qui,  sotto  questa  qufrcia 
gia  una  V9lta,  n'  |,  Carlino?  Si,  me  ne  ric9rdo,  §ra  un  anno  fa. 
Feci  qui  un  bel  giu9co  con  Giovannino.  Vanno  in  collfgio  adesso 
lui  e  Andrea,  non  stanno  phi  con  n9i.  Me  ne  andrg  in  coll^gio 
anch'  io,  mamma  ?— Si,  pensava  di  fartici  entrare  anche  quest'  anno, 
ma  poich$  n9n  stavi  bene  al  momento  di  pensarvi,  non  1'  I19 
fatto. — Stiamo  sempre  cosi  insieme,  mamma  mia,  far§  tutto  per 


240  ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 

imparare  b§ne,  e  il  parroco  mi  dara  le  lezione. —  Posso  far  cos! 
anch'  io,  mamma?  Faremo  il  possibile  tutt'  e  due,  non  fateci 
andar  via! — Ebbe,ne,  ne  parleremo  un'  altra  volta,  vi  si§te  riposati, 
facciamo  ancora  un  p9  di  passeggiata. 

1  Cf .  99  (b).  2  See  mtetere,  61.  3  From  venire,  132. 

4  From  c(u)9cere,  99.  5  From  riuscire,  130. 

EXERCISE  XLII. 

(1)  It  was  very  beautiful  weather  yesterday.  (2)  Did  you  take1  a 
walk  ?  (3)  Yes,  we  took  a  walk  together,  Andrew  and  I.  (4)  We 
went1  into  the  country  and  stayed  there  all  day.  (5)  Do  you  remem- 
ber that  day,  two  years  ago,  when  you  and  I  went  to  Fifsole  together  ? 
You  and  Charles  and  I.  (6)  Yes,  we  all  remember  that,  I  am  sure, 
and  shall  remember  it  always.  (7)  Now  we  are  going  to  school 
together,  all  three  of  us.  (8)  Our  parents  were  thinking  of  enter- 
ing us  two  years  and  a  half  ago,  but  Charles  was  not  well  then. 
(9)  The  rector  gave  him  lessons  at  home  until  he  was  well  enough 
to  go  away.  (10)  But  he  did  all  that  he  could  at  home.  (11)  We 
will  all  do  our  best 2  in  school  so  that  our  parents  may  be  proud  of 
us  and  glad  when  we  go3  home.  (12)  Do  they  give  you  long  les- 
sons? (13)  Yes,  they  gave  us  very  long  lessons  last  year,  but  we 
had  time  also  to  take  a  walk  every  day.  (14)  It  does  one  good  to 
take  a  walk  every  day.  (15)  We  often  went  into  the  country  and 
stayed  there  all  day.  (16)  We  rested  under  the  trees  and  had 
beautiful  games,  then  when  we  were  rested  we  walked  on4  a  little 
farther.5  (17)  How  pleasant  it  is  under  the  trees  after  one4  has 
had 6  a  walk ! 

1  Preterite.  2  "  =  possible."  3  Use  future. 

4  Omit.  B  =" yet  a  little."  6  ="  to  have  had." 

EXERCISE  XLIII. 

(1)  Sit  down.  (2)  Why  are  you  so  troubled?  (3)  Because  I 
am  going  to  my  sick  friend's  house.1  (4)  I  must  go  there  some- 
time or  other,  although  I  cannot  bear  the  thought  of  it.  (5)  Can 
you  go  with  me  ?  (6)  Yes,  but  I  have  to  finish  my  letter  first. 
(7)  I  can2  do  it  in  a  few  minutes.  (8)  I  ought  to  have3  written  it 
yesterday,  but  I  could  not  do  so4  because  my  little  brother  was 
slightly-ill 5  and  I  had  to  amuse  him  the  whole  afternoon,  (q)  I 
will  wait.  (10)  Very  well.  We  can  go  in  ten  minutes,  can  we 
not?  (11)  Yes. — Now  I  am  ready.6  (12)  I  am  so  glad  that  you 
can  go  with  me;    I  really  could  not :i  have  gone  alone. 

1  Da.     2  Future.      3  Cf.  82.       4"it."       5  Cf.  166.       "  Use  §  ceo. 


EXERCISES.  241 

EXERCISE  XLIV. 

Anche  il  cammello  §  un  animale  molto  i  m  p  or  tan  te-npn  si 
sa  qui  in  Europa  come'  §  important  e.  Noi  non  abbiamo  che 
quelli  che  ci  vengon  fatti  vedere  ne'  serragli,  e  si  suole  pensarvi 
come  a  curiosita.  Perp  non  sono  animali  piu  utili  agli  abitanti 
di  certi  paesi  che  i  camelli.  Paiono  fatte  queste  ppvere  bfstie  per 
quei  vasti  deserti  sabbipsi,  che  non  pffrono  al  ppvero  viaggia- 
tore  nb  un  sorso  d'  acqua,  ne  un  filo  d'  erba,  ne  un  asilo  che  valga 
a  diffnderlo  da'  raggi  cocenti  del  sole.  Ma  i  mercanti  che  d^bbono 
portare  le  lpro  merci  da  un  paese  all'  altro,  debbon  pure  traversarli 
que'  piani  desolati;  guai  a  lpro  perp  se  non  avessero  i  cammelli! 
Ppssono  questi  sopportar  la  sete  molti  giorni  e  non  ne  dpgliono 
come  dorrfbbero  per  es^mpio  i  cavalli.  Dopo  un  giorno  di  viaggio 
faticosissimo  giacciono  tutta  la  notte  sulla  sabbia  senza  dolersene. 
P<jrtano  con  un  movimento  che  piace  a  molti  le  persone  sedute  sul 
dosso.  Si  pup  chimarli,  e  con  ragipne,  le  navi  del  deserto.  Ma 
dovremmo  sapere  che  anche  queste  navi  fanno  alle  vplte  naufragio. 
Esauriti  finalmente  cadono  su  quella  sabbia  cocente  dove  rasso- 
migliano  a  quelle  altre  navi  naufragate  che  si  vedono  sugli  scpgli 
pericolpsi  e  sulle  piagge  crudeli,  battute,  mezzo  coperte  dall' 
elemento  che  una  vplta  era  per  lpro  solo  un  cammino  sptto  i 
piedi. 

EXERCISE  XLV. 

(1)  (3) 

(1)    We1  Europeans  do  not  know  how  important  an2  animal2 

(4)        (5)     (2) 
the  camel  is.      (2)  We  are  wont  to  think  of  the  horse  as  the  most 

useful  animal.  (3)  We  see  camels  only  in  menageries;  never- 
thelesss  we  ought  not  to  think  of  them  as  mere  curiosities.  (4)  Many 
poor  travelers  would  be3  lost  in  the  great  sandy  deserts  where  no 
horse  could  live,  were  it  not  that  these  pocr  beasts  seem  made  for 
such  countries.  (5)  A  merchant,  an  inhabitant  of  a  dry,  sandy 
land,  told  me  that  his  camel  did  not  suffer  from  thirst  during  many 
days  of  most  wearisome  travel,  and  that  it  bore  his  wares  over  those 
desolate  plains  without  complaining.  (6)  The  motion  of  the 
camel  was  also  very  agreeable  to  him,  as  to  many  people.  (7)  By 
day  he  traveled  seated  on  his  camel's  back,  and  by  night  he  lay  on 
the  sand  by  its  side.  (S)  There  were  no  trees  which  could  defend 
him  from  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  and  his4  head  ached  some- 
times from  the  heat,      (y)    But  it  mattered   nothing  to  the  camel; 


242  ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 

it  seemed  as  though  he  did  not  notice5  the  heat.  (10)  The  desert 
is  wont  to  inspire  fear  in6  Europeans  who  do  not  know  that  the 
camel  is  a  ship  which  can  cross  it  safely,  (n)  And  yet  it  some- 
times happens  that  these  curious  and  interesting  ships  make 
shipwreck.  (12)  I  have  seen  some  which  had  fallen  upon  the  hot 
sand  and  were  lying  there  like  the  wrecks  seen  on  cruel  reefs  by 
the  seashore.  (13)  These  ships  belong  to  the  desert  and  at  last  are 
conquered  by  their  proper  element — that  is,  the  sand — as  those 
other  ships  belong  to  the  sea  and  at  last  fall,  conquered  by  the 
water.  (14)  I  have  wished7  to  see  the  ships  of  the  desert,  and  now 
I  am3  content.      (15)   I  know  they  can  with  reason  be  called  so. 

(16)  If  I  am  ever  obliged  to  cross  the  desert  I  shall  choose  a  faithful 
camel  as  my  ship,  and  I  shall  not  be  silent  concerning2  its  virtues. 

(17)  I  am  not  silent  concerning2  them  now.  (18)  Did  it  please  you 
to  hear  about  these  animals?  (19)  We  ought  to  know  more 
about  them  than  we  generally  do.8 

1  Noialtri.  2  Omit.  3  Use  rimanere.  i  Use  glL 

6  Use  badare.      6  ="to."      7  Preterite.     8  Repeat  sapere. 


VOCABULARY 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


adj. 

adjective 

num. 

numeral 

adv. 

adverb 

part. 

participle 

art. 

article 

pers. 

person — personal 

aug. 

augmentative 

Pi 

plural 

conj. 

conjunction 

poss. 

possessive 

contr. 

contraction 

pp. 

past  participle 

def. 

definite 

pr. 

proper 

dent. 

demonstrative 

prep. 

preposition 

dim. 

diminutive 

pres. 

present 

/• 

feminine  noun 

pron. 

pronoun 

indef. 

indefinite. 

ref. 

reflexive 

inf. 

infinitive 

rel. 

relative 

interj. 

interjection 

sing. 

singular 

interrog 

.  interrogative 

v. 

verb 

m. 

masculine  noun 

va. 

active  verb 

n. 

noun 

vn. 

neuter  verb 

Irregular  verbs  are  preceded  by  an  asterisk. 

Where  m.,  /.,  follow  the  second  of  two  nouns  both  are  of  the 
same  gender. 

Where  va.,  vn.,  follow  the  second  of  two  verbs  both  are  active 
or  neuter  as  indicated. 

A  dash  indicates  the  repetition  of  the  subject- word. 

244 


ITALIAN-ENGLISH    VOCABULARY. 


a,  prep.,  at,  to 

a'  =ai,  cf.  art.  il,  40,  43 

abbassare,  va.,  to  lower;  —  gli 
9cchi,  to  cast  down  the  eyes 

abbastanza,  adv.  and  n.,  enough, 
sufficiently 

abbondanza,  /.,  abundance 

abitante,  m.,  inhabitant 

aborrire,  va.,  to  abhor 

accomiatare,  va.,  to  take  leave 

accomodare,  va.,  to  accommo- 
date, to  put  in  order,  to  ar- 


range 


va.,    to    accom- 


accompagnare, 
pany 

acqua,  /.,  water 

acquistare,  va.,  to  obtain,  to  gain 

adatto,  adj.,  suitable 

addietro,  adv.,  behind 

adesso,  adv.,  now 

adoperare,  va.,  to  use,  to  make 
use  of 

affanno,  m.,  grief 

affannosamente,  adv.,  with  diffi- 
culty 

affetuoso,  adj.,  affectionate 

affezione,  /.,  affection 

affidare,  va.,  to  entrust 

affinche,  adv.,  in  order  to,  to  the 
end  that 

aguzzare,  va.,  to  sharpen 

ala,  /.,  wing 

allentare,  va.,  to  loosen 

allontanarsi,  va.,  to  go  away 


allpra,  adv.,  then 

almeno,  adv.,  at  least 

Alpe,  /.  pi.,  the  Alps 

altro,  adj.,  other,  different,  any 

thing  else 
am  are,  va.,  to  love,  to  like 
amico,  m.,  friend 
ammalare,  vn.,  to  fall  ill 
ammansire,  va.,  to  tame;  vn.,  to 

become  mild 
amore,  m.,  love,  affection 
analogo,  adj.,  analogous 
anche,  adv.,  also 
ancora,  adv.,  still,  yet 
*andare,  vn.,  to  go 
an^ddoto,  m.,  anecdote 
anfiteatro,  m.,  amphitheatre 
animo,  m.,  mind,  courage,  heart; 

fare  — -,  to  take  courage 
anniversario,  m.,  anniversary 
anno,  m.,  year 
annunziare,  va.,  to  announce 
ansioso,  adj.,  anxious,  uneasy 
antico,  adj.,  ancient,  old 
anulare,  in.,  ring-finger 
ape,  /.,  bee  [culty 

appena,  adv.,  scarcely,  with  dirfi- 
*appr§ndere,  va.,  to  learn 
*aprire,  va.,  to  open 
arditezza,  /.,  boldness 
aria,  /.,  air,  look,  mien 
arrestarsi,  v.  ref.,  to  stay,  to  rest 
arrichirsi,  v.  ref.,  to  grow  rich 
arrivare,r;z.,  to  reach,  to  arrive  at 
arrivo,  ;;;.,  arrival 

245 


246 


ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


ascoltare,  va.,  to  listen 
asilo,  m.,  asylum,  refuge 
assegnare,  va.,  to  assign 
assenza,  /.,  absence 
assicurare,  va.,  to  assure 
assistente,   in.,  one  who  assists, 

an  attendant 
*assistere,  va.,  to  assist 
assoluto,  adj.,  absolute 
assopimento,      m.,     drowsiness, 

coma 
attaccare,  va.,  to  attach,  unite 
autore,  in.,  author 
avanti,  adv.,  before 
*avere,   va.,  to  have;  —  sonno, 

to  be  sleepy 
Avignone,  pr.  n.,  Avignon 
avvicinarsi,  v.  re].,  to  approach 

B 

badare,  vn.,  to  notice 

bambino,  m.,  baby,  child 

banca,  /.,  bench 

ban  dire,  va.,  to  banish 

barbaro,  adj.,  barbarous 

battere,  va.,  to  beat,  strike 

bfllo,  adj.,  beautiful 

benchfc,  adv.,  although 

be,ne,  adv.,  well 

*bere  (bevere),  va.,  to  drink 

bfstia,  /.,  beast 

bianco,  adj.,  white 

bibliotjca,  /.,  library 

bicchi§re,  m.,  tumbler,  glass 

bimbo,  in.,  infant 

biscotto,  m.,  biscuit 

bisognare,  vn.,  must,  to  be  neces- 
sary 

bocca,  /.,  mouth 

braccio,  m.,  arm 

bravo,  adj.,  brave,  skillful;  in- 
ter j.,  expressive  cf  approval 


breve,  adj.,  brief,  short 
brillare,  vn.,  to  shine 
bruno,  adj.,  brown,  dark 
bue,  in.,  ox;   carne  di  — ,  beef 
buono,  adj.,  good,  kind 
buttare,  va.,  to  throw,  fling 


*cadere,  vn.,  to  fall 

caduta,  /.,  fall 

caff§,  in.,  coffee 

calamaio,  m.,  inkstand 

caldo,  adj.,  warm,  hot 

calzoni,  in.  pi.,  trowsers 

cambiare,  va.,  to  change 

camera,  /.,  room,  chamber 

camerone,  m.  aug.  of  camera,  big 
room,  ward  (of  a  hospital) 

cammello,  in.,  camel 

cammino,  in.,  road 

campagna,  f.,  country 

campagnuolo,  m.  and  adj.,  rus- 
tic 

Campid9glio,  m.,the  Capitol  (at 
Rome) 

campo,  in.,  field 

canarino,  in.,  canary-bird 

cane,  in.,  dog 

capire,  va.,  to  understand 

capp§llo,  m.,  hat 

carattere,  in.,  character 

carezza,  /.,  caress 

carezzevole,  adj.,  caressing 

Carlo,  pr.  n.,  Charles 

carne,  /.,  meat 

caro,  adj.,  dear 

carrozza,  /.,  carriage 

carta,  /.,  paper 

casa,  /.,  house 

cavallo,  m.,  horse 

cercare,  va.,  to  search,  seek 

certo,  adj.,  certain 


ITALIAN-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY. 


247 


che,  rcl.  and  interrog.  pron.,  in- 
ter]'., who,  which,  that,  how 

chi,  rcl.  and  interrog.  pron.,  who, 
he  who 

chiassone,  adj.,  noisy 

ci,  adv.,  here,  there 

ci,  pron.,  us 

ciascuno,  adj.    and   pron.,   each, 
each  one 

cinque,  num.,  five 

C19,  pron.,  that;  —  §,  that  is  to 
say 

circa,  prep.,  about,  concerning 

citta,  /.,  city 

classe,  /.,  class 

clemente,  adj.,  clement,  mild 

Clemente,  pr.  n.,  Clement 

*cocente,  adj.,  burning,  hot 

C9cere  (cu9cere),  va.,  to  cook 

collfgio,  m.,  college,  school 

C9II0,  m.,  neck 

col9nia,  /.,  colony 

col9no,  m.,  colonist 

coltivare,  va.,  to  cultivate 

colui,  dem.  pron.,  he,  he  who 

come,  adv.,  as,  as  if,  like,  how 

cominciare,   va.,   to   commence, 
begin 

comm^dia,  /.,  comedy 

*comm9vere  (commu9vere),  va., 
to  move,  agitate 

comprare,  va.,  to  buy 

*compr§ndere,  va.,    to    compre- 
hend, understand 

con,  prep.,  with 

*condurre,  va.,  to  conduct,  take, 
guide 

confessare,  va.,  to  confess,  avow, 
owe 

confronto,  m.t  comparison 

confuso,  adj.,  confused 

confusamente,  adv.,  confusedly 


*condscere,  va.,  to  know  (by  the 
senses) 

conservare,  va.,  to  keep 

consigliare,  va.,  to  counsel,  ad- 
vise 

consumo,  m.,  consumption,  use 

contento,  adj.,  content,  glad,  sat- 
isfied 

continuare,  va.,  to  continue,  go 
on 

contrariare,  va.,  to  vex 

conversazione,  /.,  conversation 

coperta,  /.,  cover 

*coprire,  va.,  to  cover. 

coraggio,  m.,  courage 

corona,  /.,  crown 

corso,  m.,  course,  thread 

corte,  /. ,  court,  court-yard 

corto,  adj.,  short 

C9sa,  /.,  thing,  matter,  object, 
affair 

coscienza,  /.,  conscience,  con- 
sciousness 

cosi,  adv.,  so,  thus,  such 

credere,  va.,  to  believe 

cugino,  m.,  cousin 

cui,  rel.  pron. ,  to  whom,  of  whom, 
whose 

curiosita,  /.,  curiosity,  rarity 

D 

da,  prep.,  by,  with,  among,  to, 

at  the  house  of 
*dare,  va.,  to  give 
davvero,  adv.,  indeed,  in  truth, 

truly 
denaro,  >n.,  money 
dente,  in.,  tooth 
desfrto,  m.,  desert 
desiderare,  va.,  to  desire,  long  for 
desolato,    adj.   and   pp.  of  deso- 

lare,  desolate,  afflicted 


248 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


destra,  /.,  right  hand 

di,  prep.,  of 

di,  m.,  day 

diciotto,  num.,  eighteen 

dieci,  num.,  ten 

*diffndere,  va.,  to  defend,  protect 

difficile,  adj.,  difficult 

dimenticanza.,  /.,  forgetfulness 

dimenticare,  va.,  to  forget  ^^ 

dimorare,  vn.,  to  live,  dwell 

dimostrare,  va.,  to  show,  prove 

dintprno,  m.,  environs 

dipendfnza,  /.,  dependence 

*dire,  va.,  to  say,  tell,  relate 

direttore,  m.,  director 

direttrice,  /.,  directress 

direzione,  /.,  management,  di- 
rector's office 

diritto,  m.,  right 

discorso,  m.,  discourse,  sermon 

dito,  m.,  finger 

*divenire,  vn.,  to  become 

*dividere,  va.,  to  divide 

dolce,  adj.,  sweet,  soft 

dolcemente,  adv.,  softly,  gently 

dolcezza,  /.,  sweetness,  mildness 

*dolere,  vn.,  to  suffer; — dolersi, 
ref.,  to  lament,  complain  of 

domando,  /.,  demand,  question 

domandare,  va.t  to  demand,  ask; 

—  di,  to  ask  for,  ask  after 
domani,     adv.,    to-morrow; 

—  1'  altro,  day  after  to-morrow 

Domenica,  /. ,  Sunday 

dominare,  va.,  to  dominate,  com- 
mand 

dominazione,  /.,  domination 
dgnna,  /.,  woman 
dopo,  prep,  and  adv.,  after,  after- 
wards 
dqsso,  di.,  back 
dove,  adv.,  where 


*dovere,   va.,  to    be    necessary, 

must,  ought 
dubitare,  vn.,  to  doubt,  fear 
duca,  m.,  duke 
due,  num.,  two 
dugfnto,  num.,  two  hundred 
durante,  adj.  and  prep.,  during 

E 

e,  conj.,  and 

ebbene,  inter j.,  very  well 

eccezione,  /.,  exception 

e,  ceo,  adv.  and  interj  ,  here  is, 
there  is,  behold 

edificazione,  /..  edification, 
building 

Egiziano,  adj.  and  m.,  Egyptian 

elemento,  w.,  element 

emigrare,  vn.,  to  emigrate 

emisfero,  m.,  hemisphere 

Enrico,  pr.  n.,  Henry 

entrare,  vn.,  to  enter 

frba,  /.,  herb,  grass 

erre,  /.,  the  letter  "r" 

*esaurire,  va.,  to  exhaust 

esclamare,  va.,  to  exclaim 

esfmpio,  m.,  example;  per — ,  for 
instance 

esercitare,  va.,  to  exercise,  fol- 
low some  business,  fill  office 

esitare,  vn.,  to  hesitate 

esortare,  va.,  to  exhort 

espressione,  /. ,  expression 

essa,  pers.  pron.,  she 

*§ssere,  vn.,  to  be 

e"ssere,  m.,  being 

esso,  pers.  pron.,  he 

estremita,  /.,  extremity 

estr^mo,  m.,  extreme,  extremity 

eta,  /.,  age. 

Etrusco,  adj.  and  w.,  Etruscan 

Eurppa,  /.  pr.  n.,  Europe 


ITALIAN  ENGLISH   VOCABULARY 


249 


famiglia,  /.,  family 

famigliare,  ■;».,  familiar,  intimate 
friend 

fanciullo,  m.,  child,  little  boy 

*fare,  va.,  to  do,  make; — entrare, 
to  put ;  —  male ,  to  injure ,  hur  t ; 
—  una  passeggiata,  to  take  a 
walk;  —  vento,  to  blow;  tre 
mesi  fa,  three  months  ago; 
farsi,  ref.,  to  become 

faticoso,  adj.,  laborious,  fatigu- 
ing, hard 

fatto,  in.,  fact 

fatto,  adj  and  pp.  of  fare,  com- 
plete, finished 

favorito,  m.,  favorite 

fede,  /.,  faith 

fermare,  va.,  to  stop;  fermarsi 
ref  ,  to  stop,  pause 

festa,  /.,  holiday,  festival 

figlio,  m.,  son,  child 

figlia,  /.,  daughter,  child 

figliuolo,  m.,  son,  little  son 

filo,  vi.,  thread,  blade 

fin,  fino,  fino  a,  adv.,  until,  as  far 
as ;  —  da,  from 

finale,  adj.,  final 

finalmente,  adv.,  finally 

finestra,  /.,  window 

*fingere,  va.,  to  feign 

finire,  va.,  to  finish 

fiore,  tit.,  flower 

Fiorentino.  pr.  n.  and  adj.,  Flor- 
entine 

Firenze,  pr.  n.,  Florence 

fiume,  m.,  river 

fpndo,  m.,  depth,  bottom,  heart, 

end 
forma,  /.,  form,  manner,  way 
f<?rte,  adj.,  strong 
fra,  prep.,  within,  among,  to 


francese,  adj.  and  pr.  n.,  French 
Francia,  /.  pr.  ;/.,  France 
franco,  adj.  and  pr.  n.,  Frank 
frate,  m.,   monk,   brother    (in    a 

religious  order) 
fratello,  in.,  brother 
fuQri,  prep.,  without,  outside 


'6 


gamba,  /.,  !ci 

genitpre,  m.,  parent 

gfnte,  /.,  nation,  people,  race 

gentile,   adj.,   gentle,    courteous, 
nice 

gentilezza,  /. ,  courtesy,  kindness 

Germania,  /.,  pr.  n.,    Germany 

gettare,  va.,  to  throw 

ghibellino,  adj.   and  pr.  n.,   Ghi- 
bellinc 

gia,  adv.,  already 

giacchetta,  /. ,  jacket 

*giacere,  vn.,  to  lie  down 

giardino,  m.,  garden 

ginpcchio,  m.,  knee 

gigia,  /.,  joy,  mirth 

giorno,  m.,  day 

gipvane  (giovine),  adj.,  young 

giovane  (giovine),  w.  and  f., 
youth,  young  man,  young 
woman 

giovedi,  m  .  Thursday 

giocare  (giuocare),  va.,  to  play 

giupco,  m.,  game,  sport 

giurare,  va.,  to  swear 

grammatico,  m.,  grammarian 

grande,  adj.,  great,  big,  wide 

grandezza,  /.,  greatness,  large- 
ness 

grave,  adj.,  heavy,  serious 

grazia,  /. ,  grace  ;  pi.  grazie, 
thanks 

Gr§cia,  /.  pr.  n.,  Greece 


25° 


ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


grosso,  adj.,  big,  full 
guai,  inter j.,  woe!   beware! 
guancia,  /.,  cheek 
guardare,  va.,  to  look  at 
guardia,  /.,  guard 
guidare,  va.,  to  guide 
guizzare,  vn.,  to  glide,  slide 
gusto,    m.,    taste,    satisfaction, 
pleasure 


eri,  adv.,  yesterday;    —  1'  altro, 
day  before  yesterday 

1,  def.  art.,  cf.  40,  43 

llustre,  adj.,  illustrious,  famous 

mmagine,  /.,  picture,  image 

mmortale,  adj.,  immortal 

mparare,  va.,  to  learn 

mperatore,  m.,  emperor 

mportante,  adj.,  important 

mprestare,  va.,  to  lend 

mprovvisamente,     adv.,     unex- 
pectedly, suddenly 

n,  prep.,  in,  into 

nchiostro,  m.,  ink 

nconsiderato,    adj.,    inconsider- 
ate, foolish 

ncontrare,  va.,  to  meet 

ndi,  adv.,  afterwards 

ndice,  m.,  index- finger 

nfangare,  va.,  to  soil  with  mud 

nfermifre,  m.,  nurse,  attendant 

nfermo,  adj.,  infirm,  ill 

ngfnuo,  adj.,  ingenuous 

nglese,  adj.  and  pr.  n.,  English 

nimico,  m.  and  adj.,  enemy,  in- 

niziativa,  /.,  initiative     [imical 

nsegnare,  va.,  to  teach 

nsetto,  m.,  insect 

nsifme,  adv.  and  prep.,  together 
*int§ndere,  va.,  to   understand, 
intend,  mean 


interessante,  adj.,  interesting 
interrogare,  va.,  to  interrogate, 

ask,  examine 
*interrompere,  va.,  to  interrupt 
intitolare,  va.,  to  entitle 
invaghire,  va.  and  ref.,  to  fall  in 

love  with 
invasore,  m.,  invader 
involto,  m.,  bundle,  packet 
inzuppare,  va.,  to  soak 
io,  pers.  pron.,  I 
irregolare,  adj.,  irregular 
Italia,  /.  pr.  n.,  Italy 


labbro,  m.,  lip 

lamentarsi,  v.  ref.,  to  lament 

lapis,  m.,  pencil 

lasciare,  va.,  to  leave,  let 

latte,  m.,  milk 

lavagna,  /.,  blackboard 

*l^ggere,  va.,  to  read 

leggifro,  adj.,  light 

lei,  pers.  pron.,  her,  she  (you); 

dare  del — -,  to  use  the  pronoun 

lei  ("you")  in  addressing  one 
leone,  m.,  lion 
Leone,  pr.  n.,  Leo 
lfttera,  /.,  letter 
letto,  m.,  bed 
lettura,  /.,  reading 
levare,  va.,  to  lift;  v.  ref.,  to  rise, 

arise;  «.,  rising 
lezione,  /. ,  lesson 
li,  adv.,  there 

liberare,  va.,  to  liberate,  set  free 
libero,  adj.,  free 
libro,  m.,  book 
Lidia,  /.  pr.  n.,  Lydia 
lingua,  /.,  tongue,  language 
lo,  def.  art.  and  pers.  pron.,  him, 

it,  the 


ITALIAN -KNGLISH   VOCABULARY. 


25< 


loJare,  va.,  to  praise 
longobardo,     adj.    and     pr.    »., 

Longobard 
loro,    pers.    pron.,    them,    those 

(you) 
higlio,  m.,  July 

lui,  pers.  pron.,  him,  to  him,  he 
lunedi,  m.,  Monday 
lungo,  adj.,  long 
lu^go,  m.,  place 

M 

ma,  con].,  but 

madre,  /.,  mother 

maesta.  /.,  majesty 

maestra,  /.,  mistress,  teacher 

maestro,  m.,  master,  teacher 

maggipre,  adj.,  greater,  elder 

mai,  adv.,  ever,  (with  non)  never 

malato,  adj.,  ill 

male,  m.,  ill,  evil 

male,  adv.,  badly 

mamma,  /.,  mamma,  mother 

mancare,  vn.,  to  lack,  stand  in 
need  of 

mandare,  va.,  to  send 

mano,  /. ,  hand 

mant§llo,  m.,  cloak 

mare,  m.,  sea,  ocean 

martedi,  m.,  Tuesday 

marzo,  m.,  March 

matita,  /.,  pencil 

matto,  adj.,  mad,  immoderate, 
very  great 

me,  pers.  pron.,  me,  myself 

medico,  m.,  doctor,  physician 

m^glio,  adv.,  better 

meno,  adv.,  less,  fewer 

mentre,  adv.,  while 

mercante,  m.,  merchant,  trader 

mfrce,  /.,  goods,  wares,  mer- 
chandise 


mercoledi,  vn.,  Wednesday 

merit? vole,  adj  ,  deserving 

mese,  m.,  month 

mess^re,  m.,  Sir,  master 

*mettere,  va.,  to  put,  place;  met- 
tersi,  re].  — a  correre,  to  begin 
to  run;  —  in  cammino,  to  set 
out  to  walk 

mezzo,  m.,  middle,  midst;  adj., 
half 

miglio,  m.,  mile 

mille,  num.,  one  thousand 

minuto,  m.,  minute;  adj.,  mi- 
nute, small 

mio,  poss.,  my,  mine 

modesto,  adj.,  modest 

mpdo,  m.,  manner,  fashion,  way 

moglie,  /.,  wife 

molto,  adj.  and  adv.,  much, 
many,  very,  very  much 

momento,  m.,  moment 

monaca,  /.,  nun 

monarca,  m.,  monarch 

monito,  m.,  admonition 

montagna,  /. ,  mountain 

*mordere,  va.,  to  bite 

morte,  /.,  death 

mgrto,  adj.  and  pp.  of  mcrire, 
dead 

mostrare,  va.,  to  show 

*m<£vere  (muovere) ,  va. ,  to  move 

movimento,  m.,  movement,  mo- 
tion 

N 

Naldo,  dim.  of  Rinaldo,  pr.  n. 
Napoli,  pr.  n.,  Xaples 
narrare,  va.,  to  narrate,  tell 
*nascere,  vn.,  to  be  born 
nascita,  /.,  birth 

naufragare,  vn.,  to  shipwreck, 
suffer  shipwreck 


252 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


naufragio,  m.,  shipwreck 

nave,  /.,  ship 

ne,  pers.  pron.,  us,  to  us,  some, 

of  it,  for  it;   adv.,  thence 
ne,  con].,  neither,  nor 
nemmeno,    adv.,    neither,    nor- 

either,  not  even 
neppure,  adv.,  neither,  nor-either 
nessuno,    adj.  and   indef.  pron., 

no,  none,  nobody 
nevvero,  contr.  of  non  §  vero 
nifnte,  m.,  nothing 
nippte,  m.,  nephew 
nQ,  adv.,  no,  not 
noi,  pers.  pron.,  we,  us 
nominare,  va.,  to  name 
npn,  adv.,  no,  not;  —  che,  only 
npnno,  m.,  grandfather 
npstro,  poss.,  our,  ours 
notizia,  /.,  news,  notice 
nptte,  /.,  night 
novella,  /.,  story,  tale 
nulla,  in.  and  adv.,  nothing 
nulladimeno,  adv.,  nevertheless 
nuovo,  ad].,  new 

O 

o,  inter].,  oh! 

occhiata,  /.,  glance 

pcchio,  m.,  eye 

occidentale,   adj.,   occidental, 

western 
*ofrrire,  va.,  to  offer 
9ggi,  adv.,  to-day 
ogni,  adj.,  every 
omino,    dim.    of    upmo,    young 

man,  little  man 
onorabile,  adj.,  honorable 
onore,  in.,  honor 
(Jpera,  /.,  work,  piece  of  work, 

literary  production 
operaio,  m.,  workman 


ora,  /.,  hour;    adv.,  now 
ordinario,  adj.,  ordinary,  usual 
ordiniariamente,  adv.,  ordinarily 
origine,  /. ,  origin 
pro,  m.,  gold 
orrore,  m.,  horror 
osare,  vn.,  to  dare 
ospedale,  m.,  hospital 
osservazione,  /.,  observation 
ptto,  num.,  eight 
pvest,  m.,  west 


pacco,  package;  dim.,  pacchetto 

pace,  /.,  peace 

padre,  w.,  father 

paese,  m.,  country 

pagina,  /.,  page 

paio,  m.,  pair 

palazzo,  m.,  palace 

pallido,  adj.,  pale 

panno,  in.,  cloth;   pi.,  clothes 

papa,  in.,  papa,  father 

parfcchi,  adj.  pi.,  several 

*parere,  vn.,  to  seem,  appear 

parlare,  vn.,  to  speak,  talk 

parpla,  /.,  word 

parte,  /..  part 

particulare,  adj.,  particular 

partire,  vn.,  to  go  away,    come 

from,  proceed  from 
partito,  m.,  party 
passare,  vn.,  to  pass,  go 
passeggiata,  /. ,  walk,  drive,  turn 
passeggio,  m.,  walk 
patronato,  m.,  patronage;  —  cco- 

lastico,  protection,  assistance 
pavimento,  m.,  pavement,  paved 

floor 
pellegrino,  m.,  pilgrim,  stranger 
penna,  /.,  pen 
pensare,  va.,  to  think 


ITALIAN-ENGLISH    VOCABULARY 


253 


pensiero,  ;//.,  thought 

pensieroso,  adj.,  thoughtful,  pen- 
sive 

pentirsi,.?'.  ref.,  to  repent 

per,  prep.,  for,  by,  through,  to, 
in  order  to 

perche,  adv.,  why,  because 

*perdere,  va.,  to  lose 

perdonare,  va.,  to  pardon,  for- 
give 

perfino,  adv.,  even 

pericoloso,    adj.,    perilous,   dan- 
gerous 

periodo,  m.,  period 

perQ,  conj.,  therefore,  but 

persona,  /.,  person 

Petrarca,  pr.  n.,  Petrarch 

pezzo,  m.,  bit,  short  time 

*piacere,  vn. ,  to  please ;  m. ,  pleas- 
ure;   per  — ,  please,  kindly 

piaggia,  /.,  shore,  strand 

*piangere  (piagnere) ,  vn. ,  to  weep 

piano,  m.  and  adj.,  plain 

piazzetta,  /.,  small  square,   mar- 
ket-piace 

picchiare,  va.,  to  knock         [one 

piccino,    adj.,   small;     m.,   little 

piccolo,  adj.,  little 

piede,  m.,  foot 

piegare,  va.,  to  bend,  bow 

pieta,  /.,  piety,  pity 

pietra,  /.,  stone 

pietruzza,  /.,  dim.  of  pietra 

pigliare,  va.,  to  take;  —  in  pr$s- 
tito,  to  borrow 

piovoso,  adj.,  rainy 

piu,  adv.  and  m.,  more;  i  piii, 
majority,  the  most,  most  peo- 
ple 

poco,  adj.  and  adv.,  little,  few, 
not  much 

poesia,  /.,  poetry,  poem 


poeta,  /;/.,  poet 

poi,  adv.,  then 

poiche,  adv.,  since,  because 

politico,  m.,  politician 

police,  m.,  thumb 

polso,  in.,  pulse 

p9polo,  ;;/.,  people,  nation,  race 

portare,  va.,  to  carry 

possibile,  adj.,  possible;  il  mio  — , 

my  best 
*pote"re,  vn. ,  to  be  able ;  m. ,  power 
pQvero,    adj.,    poor;     poverino, 

dim.,  poor,  dear 
precisamente,  adv.,  exactly;  pre- 

ciso,  adj.,  precise 
predicatore,  ;».,  preacher 
prediletto,    adj.,    preferred,    fa- 
vorite 
pregare,  va.,  to  pray,  beg 
*prfndere,  va.,  to  take 
preparare,  va.,  to  prepare 
presentare,   va.,   to   present;    v. 

ref.,  presentarsi,  to  appear 
prfstito,  Di.,  borrowing 
presto,  adv.,  quickly 
prezioso,  adj.,  precious 
prima,  adv.,  before,  at  first 
primo,  adj.,  first 
principio,  m.,  beginning 
procurare,  va.,  to  procure,  help 

to,  cause  to  give 
pronto,  adj.,  ready,  prompt 
proniinzia,  f.,  pronunciation 
pr9prio,   adj.,   proper,    peculiar; 

adv.,  really 
proseguire,  va.,  to  pursue 
prossimamente,    adv  ,    soon, 

shortly 
pr9ssimo,  adj.,  near,  next 
punta,  /.,  point,  end 
pupilla,  /.,  pupil  of  the  eye 
pure,  conj.,  yet,  still    also 


254 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


Q 
qualche,   adj.,   some,   any,   few; 

—  volta,  sometimes 
quale,     adj.     and    pron.,    who, 

which,  what 
quando,  adv.,  when 
quanto,    adj.,   how   much,    how 

many,    all;     —   abbiamo    del 

mese,  what  day  of  the  month 

is  it? 
quarto,  num.  adj.,  fourth 
quasi,  adv.,  almost 
quattro,  num.,  four 
quello,  adj.  and  dem.  pron.,  that, 

that  one 
qufrcia,  /.,  oak 
qui,  adv.,  here 
quindici,  num.,  fifteen 
quinto,  num.  adj.,  fifth 

R 

raccontare,  va.,  to  tell,  relate 

ragazzo,  m.,  boy 

raggio,  m.,  ray,  beam 

ragione,  /.,  reason 

rallegrare,  vn.  and  ref.,  to  re- 
joice, be  glad 

rammentarsi,  v.  ref.,  to  remem- 
ber, recall 

rapa,  /.,  turnip 

rassomigliare,  vn.,  to  resemble 

re,  m.,  king 

recare,  va.,  to  bring,  give 

recentemente,  adv.,  recently 

regalare,  va.,  to  present,  make  a 
present  of 

regno,  m.,  kingdom 

rfgola,  /.,  rule 

*r§ndere,  va.,  to  render,  give 
back,  make 

restare,  vn.,  to  remain,  stay 

restio,  adj.f  restive 


*riaprire,  va.,  to  re-open 
Ricciardo,  pr.  n.,  Richard 
ricevere,  va.,  to  receive 
riconfortarsi,    v.    ref.,    to    take 

courage 
riconoscfnte,  adj.,  grateful 
riconoscenza,  /.,  gratitude 
*riconoscere,  va.,  to  recognize 
ricordarsi,  v.  ref.,  to  remember 
*ridere,  vn.,  to  laugh;    —  di,  to 

laugh  at 
rigo,  m.,  line 

*rincrescere,  vn.,  to  be  sorry 
ringraziare,  va.,  to  thank 
rinunziare,     va.,     to     renounce, 

give  up 
riparare,  vn.,  to  resort,  fly  for 

shelter 
ripigliare,  va.,  to  resume,   take 

again 
riportare,  va.,  to  bring  back 
riposarsi,  v.  ref.,  to  rest 
*risc9tere     (riscuptere) ,     va.,     to 

tremble,  shake,   to  return  to 

one's  senses. 
riso,  m.,  rice 

rispettpso,  adj.,  respectful 
*rispondere,  vn.,  to  answer 
ritratto,  m.,  picture,  portrait 
*riuscire,   vn.,  to   succeed,  turn 

out  to  be,  become 
rivelare,  va.,  to  reveal 
rivere,nza,  /.,  reverence,  respect, 

salute 
riverire,   va.,   to   revere,   honor, 

salute 
Roma,  pr.  «.,  Rome 
rosso,  adj.,  red 


sabato,  m.,  Saturday 
sabbia,  /.,  sand 


ITALIAN-ENGLISH    VOCABULARY. 


255 


sabbioso,  ad  j.,, sandy 

saggio,  adj.,  wise 

saltare,  vn.,  to  jump 

salutare,  va.,  to  greet,  say  good- 
morning  to 

salvatichezza,  /.,  wildness,  rude- 
ness 

santita,  /.,  holiness 

saporito,  adj.,  savory 

savio,  adj.,  wise,  sage 

sbaciuccare,  va.,  to  kiss  repeat- 
edly 

sbarcare,  va.,  to  disembark 

*scegliere  (scerre) ,  va.,  to  choose, 
select 

scellerato,  adj.,  wicked 

schermire,  vn.,  to  ward  off; 
schermirsi,  rej. ,  to  defend  one's 
self 

sci9cco,  adj.,  stupid 

sepglio,  Di.,  rock,  reef 

scolare,  m.,  scholar,  pupil 

scolastico,  adj.,  scholastic,  be- 
longing to  the  schools 

scorso,  adj.  and  pp.  of  scorrere, 
past,  last 

scrittore,  m.,  writer 

scuola,  /.,  school,  schoolroom 

scusare,  va.,  to  excuse 

se,  conj.,  if;   —  non  che,  except 

s§colo,  m.,  century,  age 

secondo,  num.  adj.,  second 

secpndo,  adv.,  according  to 

*sedere,  vn.,  to  sit,  to  seat  one's 
self 

sfdia,  /.,  seat 

segno,  m.,  sign 

*seguire,  va.,  to  follow 

sembrare,  vn.,  to  seem,  appear 

semiaperto,  adj.,  half-open 

s§mpre,  adv.,  always,  contin- 
ually 


sentire,  va.,  to  feci    hca: 

senza,  prep.,  without 

sera.  /.,  evening 

s^rie,  /..  scries 

serraglio,  m.,  enclosure,  menag 
eric 

servire,  va.,  to  serve 

sete,  /..  thirst 

sftte,  num.,  seven 

settimana.  /.,  week 

s^ttimo,  adj.,  seventh 

sfortunato,  adj.,  unfortunate 

si   pron.,  self,  one,  people,  they 

si,  adv.,  yes 

sicuro,  adj.,  sure,  certain 

signora,  /.,  lady,  madam,  Mrs. 

signore,  ;;?.,  gentleman,  sir,  Mr. 

signoria,  /.,  rule,  government 

simpatico,     adj.,     sympathetic, 
congenial 

singhiozzare,  vn.,  to  sob 

singolare,  adj.  and  m.,  singular 

sinistro,  adj.,  left 

soggetto.  m.,  subject 

solamente,  adv.,  only 

soldato,  m..  soldier 

soldo,  m.,  penny 

sole,  m.,  sun 

*sol|re,  vn.,  to   be    accustomed, 
wont 

solo.  adj.  and  adv.,  alone,  only 

sonetto,  m.,  sonnet 

sonno,  m..   sleep;   aver — ,  to  be 
sleepy 

sopportare,  va.,  to  support,  suf- 
fer, bear 

sopra,  prep.,  on,  upon,  over 

sorflla,  /.,  sister 

sorriso    m.,  smile 

sorso,  m.,  gulp,  drink 

sptto,  prep  ,  under 

sovente,  adv.,  often 


256 


ITALIAN  GRAMMAR. 


Spagna,  /.  pr.  n.,  Spain 

spagnuolo,  adj.  and  pr.  n.,  Span- 
ish 

spalla,  /.,  shoulder 

specialmente,  adv.,  especially 

speranza,  /.,  hope 

sperare,  va.,  to  hope 

spesa,  /.,  cost,  expense 

spesso,  adv.,  often 

spiegare,  va.,  to  explain 

staccarsi,  v.  ref.,  to  detach,  leave 

stanco,  adj. ,  tired,  fatigued 

*stare,  vn.,to  stand,  to  be 

stile,  m.,  style 

*stringere  (strignere) ,  va. ,  to  bind, 
draw  together 

studiare,  va.,  to  study 

studio,  w.,  study 

subito,  adv.,  suddenly,  soon,  at 
once 

sublime,  adj. ,  sublime 

suo,  pass.,  his,  her,  hers 

suora,  /.,  sister,  nun 

superiore,  adj.,  superior,  upper 

svoltata,  /.,  turn,  corner  (of  a 
street) 


tagliare,  va.,  to  cut 

tanto,  adj.  and  adv.,  so  much,  so 

many,  such  a 
tastare,  va.,  to  touch,  feel 
tata,   m.,  father,   daddy   (infan- 
tine word) 
tivola,  /.,  table 
te,  pers.  pron.,  thee,  thou 
tedesco,  adj.  and  pr.  n.,  German 
tsmperino,  m.,  penknife 
t?mpo,  in.,  time,  weather 
*tenere,  va.,  to  have,  hold 
t§rra,  /.,  earth 
terreno,  in.,  ground,  land 


t?rzo,  m.  and  num.  adj.,  third 

testa,  /.,  head 

Tevere,  pr.  ».,  Tiber 

timore,  m.,  fear,  apprehension 

tiratina,  /.,  debate,     contention. 

scolding 
toccare,  va.,  to  touch 
*t9gliere    (torre),    va.,    to    take, 

take  away 
tornare,    vn.,    to    return,    come 

back 
Toscana,  /.  pr.  n.,  Tuscany 
toscano,  adj.  and  pr.  n.,  Tuscan 
tossire,  vn.,  to  cough 
traccia,  /.,  trace 
trag^dia,  /.,  tragedy 
tranquillita,  /.,  tranquillity 
tranquillo,  adj.,  tranquil,  quiet 
trasferire,  va.,  to  transfer 
tratto,  m.,  turn,  time;  ad  un — , 

all  at  once 
traversare,  va.,  to  cross 
tre,  num.,  three 
tremare,  vn.,  to  tremble 
trenta,  num.,  thirty 
tristo,  adj.,  sad,  bad 
triumviro,  m.,  triumvir 
trovare,  va.,  to  find 
tuo,  pass.,  thy,  thine 
Torino,  pr.  n.,  Turin 
tutto,  adj.,  all 

U 

uccfllo,  m.,  bird 

ufficio,  m.,  office,  charge 

ultimo,  adj.,  last 

umano,  adj.,  human 

Umberto,  pr.  n.,  Humbert 

unghia,  /.,  nail 

uno,  ind.  art.  and  num.,  a,  an, 

one 
uomo,  m.,  man 


ITALIAN-ENGLISH    VOCABULARY 


257 


usanza.  /.,  use,  custom 

*uscire.  vu.,  to  go  out,  come  out 

utile,  adj.,  useful 

V 

vago.  adj.,  vague 

*valere,  vn.,  to  suffice,  have  the 

power,  be  worth 
vasto.  adj.,  vast 
Vaticano,  pr.  n.,  the  Vatican 
vfcchio,  adj.,  old,  ancient 
*vedere,  va.,  to  see 
veleno,  m.,  poison 
venerdi,  m.,  Friday 
*  venire,  vn.,  to  come  (to  be) 
venti,  num.,  twenty 
vero,  adj.,  true,  real 
verso,  prep.,  towards 
vestire,  va.,  to  dress 
via,  /.,  street,  way,  road 
via,    adv.,    more,    much    more, 

away 
viaggiare,  vn.t  to  travel,  journey 


viaggiatore,  ui  ,  traveler 
viaggio.  ;;/.,  journey ,  fare  un  —  , 

to  take  a  trip 
vicino,  adj.  and  prep.,  near,  next 
violenza,  /.,  violence 
visita,  /  ,  visit 
viso,  ;;z.,  face 
vispo,  adj.,  merry,  lively 
vista,  /.,  sight;     a  prima  — ,  at 

(first)  sight 
vita,  /..  life 
vivacita,  /.,  vivacity 
voce,  /.,  voice 
vgglia,  /.,  will,  desire 
volenti^ri,  adv.,  willingly,  gladly 
volta,  /.,  turn,  time;    alle  v9lte, 

at  times,  sometimes 
volume,  m.t  volume 
vgstro,  pass.,  your,  yours 


zia.  /.,  aunt 
zio,  m.t  uncle 


ENGLISH-ITALIAN  VOCABULARY. 


A 
abhor,  va.,  aborrire 
able,  to  be  — ,  vn.,  potere 
about,  prep.,  circa  di 
absence,  assemza,  /. 
absolute,  adj. ,  assoluto 
accompany,  va.,  accompagnare 
ache,  dolere,  vn. 
afraid,  to  be  — ,  temere,  va.,  aver 

paura 
after,  prep.,  dopo 
afternoon,  dopopranzo,  in. 
afterwards,  adv.,  indi,  piu  tardi 
aofo,  an  hour  — ,  un'  ora  fa 
air,  aria,  /. 
all,  adj.,  tutto 
almost,  adv.,  quasi 
alone,  adj.,  solo 
aloud,  adv.,  ad  alta  voce 
Alps,  pr.  n.,  le  Alpe 
also,  conj.,  anche 
always,  adv.,  s§mpre 
among,  prep.,  da 
amphitheater,  anfiteatro,  in. 
amuse,  divertire,  trattenere,  va. 
ancient,  adj. ,  antico 
and,  conj.,  e 
anecdote,  an§ddoto,  m. 
anniversary,  anniversario,  m. 
another,   adj.  and  n.,  altro,   un 

altro 
anxiety,  pena,  /. 
appear,  *parere,  vn. 
apply,  applicar,   va.;  applicarsi, 

ref. 


approach,  avvicinarsi,  v.  ref. 

arm,  braccio,  in. 

arms  (=  weapons) ,  le  armi,  /.  pi. 

arrival,  arrivo,  m. 

arrive,  arrivare,  vn. 

as,  adv.,  siccome 

ascend,  *ascendere,  *salire,  va. 

ask,  domandare,  va. 

assure,  assicurare,  va. 

aunt,  zia,  /. 

author,  autore,  m. 

B 

baby,  bambino,  in. 

back,  dosso,  m. 

bank,  sponda,  riva,  /. 

be,  *§ ssere,  vn.;  to  —  hungry, 
thirsty,  hot,  cold,  aver  fame, 
sete,  caldo,  freddo;  to  —  ten 
years  old,  aver  di§ci  anni; 
how  are  you  (=  how  do  you 
do) ,  come  sta 

bear,  portare,  sopportare,  va. 

beast,  b§stia,  /. 

beat  ( =  to  give  blows),  battere; 
(  =  to  conquer) ,  vincere,  va. 

beautiful,  bello,  adj. 

because,  conj.,  perch^ 

become,  *farsi,  v.  ref. 

bed,  l§tto,  in. 

bee,  ape,  /. 

begin,  cominciare,  va.;  *metter- 

si  a,  v.  ref. 
being,  gssere,  ;;;. 
belong,  *appartenere,  vn. 

258 


ENGLISH-ITALIAN   VOCABULARY. 


259 


bench,  banca,  /. 

beside,  prep.,  accanto,  presso 

best,  adj.  sup.,  miglipre 

between,  prep.,  fra,  tra 

bird,  uccello,  tn. 

birth,  nascita,  /. 

biscuit,  biscotto,  m. 

black,  adj.,  nero 

blackboard,  lavagna,  /. 

boldness,  arditezza,  f. 

born,  to  be  — ,  *nascere,  vn. 

bottom,  fondo,  111. 

boy,  ragazzo,  m. 

brave,  adj.,  bravo 

breathe,  respirare,  vn. 

brief,  adj.,  breve 

bring,    portare;    va.,   to — back, 

riportare;    (a  person),  *ricon- 

durre 
brother,  fratello,  m. 
but,  conj.,  ma,  per§ 


call,  chiamare,  va. 

camel,  cammello,  m. 

can  (  =to  be  able),  potere,  vn. 

caress,  carezza,  /. 

carry,  portare,  va. 

case,  caso,  m. 

celebrate,     celebrare,     solenniz- 

zare,  va. 
certain,  adj.,  certo,  sicuro 
century,  sfcolo,  111. 
character,  carattere,  m. 
cheek,  guancia,  /. 
child,    bambino,     fanciullo,    in.; 

bambina,  fanciulla,  /. 
choose,  *  scegliere,  va. 
Christopher   Columbus,   pr.     n., 

Cristgforo  Colombo 
city,  citta,  /. 
class,  classe,  /. 


cl<  ise,  *chiiidere,  va. 

closed  (pp.  of  chiudere),  chiuso 

coat,  abito,  m. 

come,  *  venire,  vn.;  to  —  through, 
*uscire,  vn. 

comcd\',  comm^dia,  /. 

comparison,  confronto,  m. 

concerning,  prep.,  circa 

conquer,  *vincere,  va. 

console,  consolare,  va. 

content,  adj.,  contento;  to  — , 
contentare,  va.;  contentarsi, 
v.  rej . 

continue,  continuare,  va, 

copy-book,  quaderno,  m. 

corridor,  corridoio,  m. 

cost,  spesa,  /. 

cough,  tossire,  vn. 

counsel,  consigliare,  va. 

country,  paese,  m.;  campagna.  /. 

countryman,  paesano,  contadi- 
no,  m. 

courage,  coraggio,  in.;  to  take — , 
farsi  animo 

court,  corte,  /. 

cousin,  cugino,  m. 

crayon,  matita,  /. 

cross,  traversare,  va. 

cry,  grido,  m.;  to  give  a — ,  get- 
tare  un  grido 

cut,  tagliare,  va. 


D 

damage,  danno,  111. 
dark,  adj.,  oscuro 
date,  data,  /. 
day,  giorno,  m. 
dead,  adj.,  morto 
dear,  adj.,  caro 
death,  morte,  f. 
defend,  *dif§ndere,  va. 


26o 


ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


demand,  domanda,  /.;  to  — ,  do- 

mandare,  va. 
departure,  partfnza,  /. 
dependence,  dipendenza,  /. 
deserve,  meritare,  va. 
desolate,  adj.,  deserto 
destroy,  *distruggere,  va. 
die,  *morire,  vn. 
difficult,  adj.,  difficile 
difficulty,  difficolta, /./   with — » 

affannosamente,  adv. 
director,  direttore,  m. 
directress,  direttrice,  /. 
do,  *fare,  va. 
doctor,  mfdico,  m. 
dog,  cane,  in. 
door,  p<?rta,  /. 
dry,  adj.,  arido 
duke,  duca,  in. 
during,  prep.,  durante,  per 
dwell,  dimorare,  vn. 


each,  pron.,  ciascuno 
edifice,  edificazione,  /. 
Egyptian,  adj.  and  pr.  n.,   egi- 

ziano 
either,    conj.;    nor  — ,  neppure, 

nemmeno 
empire,  imp§ro,  m. 
end,  fondo,  in. 
enemy,  nemico,  inimico,  m. 
enough,  adv.,  abbastanza 
enrich,  arrichire,  va. 
enter,  entrare,  vn. 
entitle,  intitolare,  va. 
Etruscan,  adj.  and  pr.  n.,  etrusco 
Europe,  Eur9pa,  /.  pr.  n. 
evening,  sera,  /. 
ever,  adv.,  mai 
every,    adj.     and     pron.,    ogni, 

ognuno,  ciascuno 


excellence,  eccellenza,  / 
exception,  eccezione,  /. 
exclaim,  esclamare,  va. 
excuse,  scusare,  va. 
explain,  spiegare,  va. 
eye,  9cchio,  m. 


face,  faccia,  /.;  viso,  m  * 

fact,  fatto,  m. 

faith,  fede,  /. 

faithful,  adj.,  fedele 

fall,  *cadere,  vn.;  caduta,  /. 

familiar,  adj.  and  n.,  familiare 

family,  famiglia,  /. 

far,  adj.  and  adv.,  lontano;  adv., 

lunge 
fast,  adv.,  prfsto,  sollecitamente 
father,  padre,  m. 
feel,  sentire,  tastare,  va. 
feign,  *fingere,  vn. 
few,  adj.  and  n.,  qualche;  p9chi, 

m.,  pQche,  /. 
find,  trovare,  va. 
finger,  dito,  m. 
finish,  finire,  va. 
first,  adj.,  primo;   adv.,  prima 
five,  cinque,  num. 
fixedly,  adv.,  fissamente 
flight  (of  stairs) ,  branco,  m. 
floor,  pavimento,  m. 
Florence,  Firenze,  pr.  n. 
Florentine,    adj.    and    pr.      n., 

fiorentino 
flower,  fj.ore,  m. 
follow,  *seguire,  seguitare,  va. 
foolish,  adj.,  inconsiderato 
foot,  piede,  m. 
for,  prep.,  per;   conj.,  pdich^ 
formerly,  adv.,  altre  vQlte,  /.  pi. 
fortunate,  adj.,  fortunato 


ENGLISH-ITALIAN   VOCABULARY. 


261 


found,  f  on  dare,  va. 

fourth,  adj.,  quarto 

free,  liberare,  va. 

French,  adj.  and  pr.  n.,  francese 

friend,  amico,  m. 


G 


gain,  acquistare,  va. 

game,  giu9co,  m. 

gate,  pprta.  /. 

gaze,  to  —  at,  guardare,  va. 

generally,  adv.,  generalmente 

gentleman,  signore,  w. 

German,  adj.  and  pr.  n.,  tedesco 

Germany,  Germania,  /.  pr.  n. 

girl,  ragazza,  /. 

give,  *dare,  va. 

glad,  adj.,  contento 

gladly,  adv.,  volentieri 

go,  *andare,  vn.;  to  —  away,  an- 

darsene,  ref.;  to  —  out,*uscire, 

vn. 
gold,  Qro,  m. 
golden,  adj.,  d'Qro,  m. 
good,      adj.,      bu<?no,      dabbene 

(placed  after  noun) ;    —  day, 

bugn  giorno;  —  by,  addio;   to 

do  —  to,  far  bene  a 
governor,  governatore,  m. 
grace,  grazia,  /. 
grand,    adj.,    grande;     — father, 

n9nno,  m.;  — son,  nipote,  m. 
grass,  erba,  /. 
gratitude,  riconoscenza,  /. 
great,     adj.,     grande;      greater, 

maggiore;  very  great,  sommo 
greatness,  grandezza,  /. 
Greece,  Grfcia,  /.  pr.  n. 
green,  adj.,  verde 
ground,  terreno,  m. 
guide,  guidare,  va. 


H 

half,  adj.,  mezzo 

hand,  mano,  /. 

happen,   *accadere,  vn. 

happy,  adj.,  felice 

hat,  cappfllo,  m. 

have,  *avere,  va. 

head,  capo,  m. 

hear,  *udire,  sentire,  va. 

heart,  cu9re,  m. 

heat,  calore,  m. 

heel,  tacco,  m. 

hemisphere,  emisfero,  m. 

Henry,  Enrico,  pr.  n. 

here,  adv.,  qui,  qua;  — is,  ecco 

his,  pass.,  suo 

history,  st9ria,  /. 

home,  casa,  /. 

honorable,  adj.,   onorabile,   ono- 

revole 
hope,  sperare,  va.;  speranza,  /. 
horse,  cavallo,  m. 
hot,  adj.,  caldo 
house,  casa,  /.;   at  the  —  of,  da, 

prep. 
how,  adv.,  come,  quanto 
however,  adv.,  bench^,  pen) 
human,  adj.,  umano 

I 

if,  conj.,  se;  as — ,  come  se 

ill,  adj.,  malato;  dim .,  somewhat 

ill,  sickly,  malatuccio 
indeed,  adv.  and  inter j.,  davvero 
index  (finger),  indice,  m. 
inhabitant,  abitante,  m. 
ink-well,  calamdio,  w. 
insect,  insftto,  m. 
inspire,  inspirare,  va. 
instinct,  istinto,  m. 
interesting,  adj.,  interessante 
interrogate,  interrogare,  va. 


262 


ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


intimate,  adj.,  intimo 
invader,  invasore,  m. 
irregular,  adj.,  irregolare 
Italy,  Italia,  /.  pr.  n. 

J 
John,  Giovanni,  pr.  n. 
journey,  viaggio,  m. 
jump,  saltare,  vn. 

K 

keep,  conservare,  va. 

kindly,  adj.,  buono 

king,  re,  m. 

kingdom,  regno,  m. 

kiss,  baciare;  — repeatedly, 

sbacciuccare,  va. 
knock,  picchiare,  va. 
know, — by  the  senses,  *conosce- 

re;   =  recognize,  *riconoscere; 

—  by  the  mind,  *sapere 


lack,  mancare,  vn. 

lady,  signpra,  /. 

land,  terreno,  m. 

language,  lingua,  /. 

last,  adj.,  ultimo,  scorso;    at  — , 

adv.,  finalmente 
laugh,  *ridere,  vn. 
lay,  *porre,  va. 
learn,  imparare,  va. 
leave,   lasciare,   va.;  to   take  — , 

accomiatarsi,  ref. 
lecture,  fare  un  discorso,  parlare, 

vn. 
left,  adj.,  sinistro 
leg,  gamba,  /. 
lesson,  lezione,  /. 
letter,  l§ttera,  /. 
lie,  — down,  *giacere,  vn. 
life,  vita,  /. 


like,  adv.,  come 

like    ( =  to    love),    amare,    va.; 

piacere,  vn. 
lion,  leone,  m. 
lip,  labbro,  m. 
literature,  letteratura,  /. 
little,  adj.,  piccolo,  piccino;    adv. 

and  adj. ,  poco 
lively,  adj.,  vispo 
long,  adj.,  lungo 
look,  —  at,  guardare,  va.;  to  — 

for,  cercare,  va. 
loosen,  allentare,  va. 
lordship,  signoria,  /. 
lose,  *p|rdere,  va.    . 
love,  amore,  m. 
love,  amare,  va.    . 
lower,  abbassare,  va. 
Lydia,  Lidia,  /.  pr.  n. 

M 

mad,   adj.,   matto 

make,  *fare,  va. 

man,  upmo,  m. 

manage,  fare  in  modo  di 

manner,  modo,  m. 

many,    adj.    and    n.,  molti,    m.; 

molte,  /.;  so  many,  tanti,  — e 
master,  maestro,  padrone,  m. 
matter,   cgsa,   /.;    to  — ,    impor- 

tare,  vn. 
may,  maggio,  m. 
me,  pers.  pron.,  me,  mi 
mean,  *intfndere,   va. 
medicine,    medicina,    /.,    medici- 

nale,  in. 
meet,  incontrare,  va. 
menagerie,  serraglio,  m. 
merchant,  mercante,  m. 
mere,  adj.,  puro,  semplice 
mild,  to  grow  — ,  ammansirsi.  v. 

ref. 


ENGLISH-ITALIAN   VOCABULARY. 


263 


military,  adj.,  militare 

mind,  animo,  ;;/. 

mine,  poss.,  il  mio 

minute,  minuto,  m. 

misery,  mis^ria,  /. 

misfortune,  disgrazia, /. 

monarch,  monarca,  m. 

money,  denaro,  m. 

monk,  frate,  m. 

month,  mese,  111. 

more,  adv.,   piu 

most  (people),  i  piii,  m.  pi 

mother,  madre,  /. 

motion,  movimento.  m. 

mountain,  montagna,  /. 

mouth,  bpeca,  /. 

move,  *mpversi,  v.  ref. 

movement,  movimento,  m. 

Mr.,  signor(e) 

Mrs.,  signora 

much,  adj.,  molto;  how  — ,  quan- 

to;   so  — ,  tanto 
must  (=  to  be  obliged),  *dovere, 

vn. 
myself,  pers.  pron.,  me,  me  stesso 

N 

nail  (finger-nail) ,  unghia,  /. 

name,  nominare,  va.;  npme,  m 

narrate,  narrare,  va. 

naturally,  adv.,  naturalmente 

necessity,  bisogno,  m. 

neck,  C9II0,  m. 

need,  necessitl,  /. ,  bisogno,  »/. 

never,  adv.,  non — mai,  mai 

nevertheless,  adv.,  nondimeno 

new,  adj.,  nu9vo 

night,  nptte,  /. 

no,  adv.,  np,  non;  adj.,  nessuno 

nobody,    nessuno,    m.;    —   else, 

nessun  altro 
none,  pron.,  nessuno 


north,  nprd,  in.;  North  America, 

America  del  Nprd 
note  book,  quaderno,   ;;/. 
nothing,  niente,  m. 
notice,  osservare,  va.,  badare  (sl), 

vn. 
now,  adv.,  pra.  adesso 
nurse,  infermiere,  111. 

O 

object,  cpsa,  /. 

oblige,  obbligare,  va. 

observe,  osservare,  va. 

occidental,  adj.,  occidentale 

ocean,  mare,  m. 

of,  prep.,  di 

often,  adv.,  spesso 

old,   adj.,    v^cchio;     to    be    ten 

years  — ■,  aver  difci  anni 
on,  prep.,  su,  sppra 
one,  indef.  art.  and  num.,  uno  -a; 

one  by  one,  uno  ad  una  vplta 
only,  adv.,  solamente 
open,     adj.     and     pp.,     aperto  ; 

to  — ,  -aprire,  va. 
opposite,  prep.,  in  faccia  a 
or,  con].,  0,  pd 
order,  in  —  to,  affinche 
ordinarily,  adv.,  ordinariamente 
origin,  origine,  /. 
other,  adj.  and  pron.,  altro 
ought     (expressing    duty),    *do- 

veie,  vn. 
over,  prep.,  per 


painfully,  adv.,  affannosamente 
pair,  paio,  111. 
pale,  adj. ,  pallido 
palpitate,  palpitare,  vn. 
paper,  carta,  /. 
parent,  genitpre,  m. 


264 


ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


part,  parte,  /. 

pass,  passare,  vn. 

peace,  pace,  /. 

pen,  penna,  /. 

pencil,  lapis,  m.,  matita,  /. 

people,  pppolo,  m.,  gente,  /. 

period,  periodo,  m. 

picture,   pittura,  /.,  ritratto,    m., 

immagine,  f. 
piety,  pieta,  /. 
plain,  pianura,  /. 
play,  giocare  (giuocare),  va. 
pleasant,  to  be  — ,  fare  bene 
please,  *piacere,  vn. 
pleasing,  adj.,  piacevole 
pleasure,  piacere,  m. 
plump,  adj.,  grassotto 
poet,  pofta,  m. 
poison,  veleno,  m. 
politician,  politico,  m. 
poor,  adj.,  pQvero 
portrait,  ritratto,  m. 
power,  potere,  in. 
praise,  lodare,  va. 
preacher,  predicatore,  m. 
precious,  adj.,  prezioso 
present,     regalo,    dono,    m.;     to 

make  a  — ,  fare  un  regalo,  un 

dono 
present,  presentare,  va. 
press,  *stringere,  va. 
profound,  adj.,  profondo 
pronunciation,  pronuncia,  /. 
proper,  adj.,  pr9prio 
proud,  adj.,  superbo,  contento 
province,   provincia,  /. 
pulse,  polso,  m. 
pupil,  scolare,  m. 

Q 

queen,  regina,  /. 
quickly,  adv.,  stibito 
quiet ,  adj. ,  tranquillo 


R 

"r"  (letter  of  the  alphabet), erre, 

race,  g§nte,  /. 

ragged,  adj.,  stracclato 

raise,  levare,  va. 

range,  allungarsi,  v.  ref. 

rascal,  briccone,  furfante,  m. 

ray,  raggio,  m. 

read,  *lfggere,  va. 

reading,  lettura,  /. 

ready,  adj. ,  pronto 

really,  adv.,  davvero 

reason,  ragione,  /. 

recall,  ricordarsi,  v.  ref. 

recently,  adv.,  recentemente 

recognize,  *riconoscere,  va. 

rector,  parroco,  m. 

red,  adj.,  rosso 

reef,  sc(?glio,  m. 

regain,  riacquistare,  va. 

relate,  raccontare,  va. 

relieve,  levar  (uno)  di  pena 

remain,  *stare,  restare,  vn. 

remark,  osservare,  va. 

remember,  ricordarsi,  vn. 

repeat,  ripftere,  va. 

reply,  *rispondere,  vn. 

republic,  repubblica,  /. 

respectful,  adj.,  rispettoso 

rest,  riposarsi,  v.  ref. 

restive,  adj.,  restio 

resume,  ripigliare,  va. 

right,  diritto,  m. 

right,  adj.,  destro;  adv.,  a  destra 

ring-finger,  dito  anulare,  anulare, 

m. 
rise,  levarsi,  v.  ref. 
river,  fiume,  m. 
road,  strada,  via,  /. 
rcsy,  adj.,  rgseo 


ENGLISH-ITALIAN   VOCABULARY. 


265 


row,  fila,  f. 

rule,     r§gola,     /.;  (■=  dominion) 

signona.  /. 
run   *cprrere; — away,  scappare, 

vn. 

S 
sad,  adj.,  triste 
safely,  adv.,  sicuramente 
salute,  salutare,  va. 
same,  adj.,  stesso 
sand,  sabbia,  /. 
sandy,  adj.,  sabbipso 
Saturday,  sabato,  m. 
say,  *dire,  va. 
school,  scupla,  /. 
scolding,  tiratina,  /. 
scorching,  adj.,  cocente 
sea,  mare,  m. 
seashore,  spiaggia,  /. 
seat,  s§ dia,  /. 
second,  adj.,  secondo 
see,  *vedere,  va. 
seek,  cercare,  va. 
seem,  *parere,  sembrare,  vn. 
September,  settembre,  m. 
series,  sfrie,  /. 

shake  the  head,  crollare  il  capo 
sharp,  adj.,  acuto 
she,  pron.,  ess,a 
ship,  nave,  /. 
shipwreck,  to  make  — ,  naufra- 

gare,  vn. 
shoe,  Scarpa,  /. 
shoulder,  spalla,  /. 
show,  mostrare,  va. 
sick,  adj.  and  m.,  malato 
side,  lato,  m. 
sigh,  sospiro,  m. 
sight,  vista,  /. 

silent,  to  be  — ,  *tacere,  vn. 
Simon,  pr.  n.,  Simone 
since,  conj.,  poiche 


singular,  singolare,  w. 

sink,  *imm^rgersi,  v.  rcf. 

sister,  sorella;    =nun,  supra,  /. 

sit  (down),  accomodarsi,  v.  ref. 

six,  num.,  sej 

slate,  lavagna,  /. 

sleep,  spnno,  >u. 

sleepy,  to  be  — ,  aver  spnno 

slowly,  adv.,  lentemente 

small,  adj.,  piccolo 

so,  adv.,  cosi;  —  that,  affinch^ 

sob,  singhiozzare,  vn. 

soldier,  soldato,  m. 

some,  pron.,  alcuni 

something,  qualche  cpsa,  /. 

sometime,  —  or  other,  un  giprno 

p  V  altro 
sometimes,  adv.,  qualche  vplta 
soon,  adv.,  subito 
sorry,  to  be  — ,  *rincrescere,  vn. 
Spanish,    adj.    and  pr.    n.,    spa- 

gnuplo 
speak,  parlare,  vn. 
spite,  in  — ,  malgrado 
sponge,  spugna,  /. 
square,   =park,  piazza,  /. 
stair,  scala,  f. 
stammer,  balbettare,  vn. 
stare,  guardar  fisso 
staring,  adj.,   fisso 
statue,  statua,  f. 
statute,  statuto,  in. 
stay,  *stare,  res  tare,  vn. 
stick,  bastpne,  m. 
stone,  sasso,  /;/.,  pietra,  /. 
stop,  fermarsi,  v.  ref. 
stream,  ruscello,  in. 
street,  strada,  /. 
street-corner,  svo^tata,  /. 
strong,  adj.,  fprte 
study,  studiare,  va.t  studio,  m. 
stupid,  adj.,  scipeco 


266 


ITALIAN   GRAMMAR. 


style,  stile,  m. 
subject,  soggetto,  m. 
sublime,  adj.,  sublime 
such,  adj.  and  adv.,  tanto 
suffer,  *soffrire,  va.,  patire,  vn. 
sun,  sole,  m.;  — rise,  il  levare  del 

sole 
superior,  adj.,  superiore 
swear,  giurare,  vn. 
swell,  gonfiare,  vn. 
swollen,  adj.,  gpnfio 


table,  tavola,  /. 

take,   *pr§ndere,    *t9gliere,    va.; 

to  —  a   walk,   fare    una    pas- 

seggiata 
teach,  insegnare,  va. 
teacher,  maestro,  m.,  maestra,  /. 
tear,   lagrima,  /.;    to  burst  into 

tears,  scoppiare  in  lagrime 
tell,  raccontare,  narrare,  va. 
than,  adv.,  di,  che 
thank,  ringraziare,  va. 
thanks,  grazie,  /.  pi. 
that,    pr.    and    dem.    adj.,    quel, 

quello,  quel  tale;  —  is,  cio§ 
that,  rel.,  che 
their,  poss.,  loro 
then,    adv.,    allora,     ppi;     conj., 

dunque 
there,  adv.,  la,  li;    —  is,  —  are, 

vi  §,  vi  sono 
thin,  adj.,  magro 
thing,  cosa,  /. 

think,  pensare,  vn.;  credere,  va. 
third,  adj.,  terzo 
thirst,  sete,  /. 
this,  dem.,  questo 
thought,  pensi^ro,  m. 
three,  num.,  tre 
through,  prep.,  per 


throw,  gettare,  buttare,  va. 

thumb,  pgllice,  m. 

thus,  adv.,  co si 

Tiber,  Tevere,  m. 

time,  tempo,  m.,  vglta,  f. 

tired,  adj.,  stanco 

to-morrow,  adv.,  domani 

too,  adv.,  anche 

toss,  agitare,  va. 

towards,  prep.,  verso 

trace,  traccia,  /. 

tragedy,  trag^dia,  /. 

tranquillity,  tranquillita,  /. 

travel,  viaggiare,  vn.,  viaggio,  m. 

traveller,  viaggiatore,  m. 

tree,  albero,  m. 

trio,  trio,  m. 

triumvir,  tritimviro,  m. 

trouble,  *affliggere,  affannare,va. 

true,  adj.,  vero 

truly,  adv.,  davvero 

Turin,  pr.  n.,  Torino 

turn,  *v9lgere,  va. 

Tuscan,  adj.  and  pr.  n.,  toscano 

two,  num.,  due 

U 

understand,  capire,  va. 
unexpectedly,  improvvisamente 
unfortunate,     adj.,     sfortunato; 

— ly,  adv.,  sfortunatamente 
unite,  unire,  va. 
until,  prep.,  fino  a 
us,  pron.  pers.,  noi 
usually,  adv.,  ordinariamente 

V 

verse,  verso,  m. 
very,  adv.,  molto;    adj.,  stesso 
vex,  contrariare,  va. 
Victor  Emanuel,  pr.  n.,  Vittprio 
Emmanuele 


ENGLISH-ITALIAN   VOCABULARY. 


267 


violence,  viole,nza,  /. 
virtue,  virtu,  /. 
vivaciousness,  vivacita,  /. 
voice,  voce,  /. 

W 

wait,  aspettare,  vn. 

walk,  passeggiare,  vn. 

want,  *volere,  va. 

wares,  merce,  /. 

water,  acqua,  J. 

way,  =  road,  via,  /.;    =manner, 

maniera,  /.,  mpdo,  m. 
we,  pron.  pcrs.,  noi 
wearisome,  adj.,  faticoso 
weather,  tfmpo,  m.;    to  be  good 

— ,  far  buon  tempo 
Wednesday,  mercoledi,  m. 
week,  settimana,  /. 
weep,  *piangere,  vn. 
well,  adv.,  b§ne;    very  — ,  inter ;'., 

ebbene 
west,  pvest,  m. 
western,  adj.,  occidentale 
what,  interrog.,  quale 
when,  adv.,  quando 
where,  adv.,  dove 
white,  adj.,  bianco 
who,  rel.  and  inter.,  chi 


whole-,  adj.,  tutto 

why,  adv.,  perche 

wicked,  adj.,  scellerato 

wife,  mpglie 

wildncss,  salvatichezza,  /. 

wing,  ala,  /. 

wise,  adj.,  saggio,  savio 

wish,  *volere,  va. 

with,  prep.,  con,  di,  da 

within,  prep.,  fra 

without,  prep.,  senza 

wont,  to  be  — ,  *solere,  vn. 

word,  parola,  /. 

work,  Qpera,  /. 

world,  mondo,  m. 

worse,  adv.,  pfggio;    to  grow  — , 

peggiorare,  va. 
wreck,  naufragio,  m. 
write,  *scrivere,  va. 
writer,  scrittore,  m. 
wrong,  to  be  —  with  one,  aver 

qualcosa 


year,  anno,  m. 

yes,  adv.,  si 

yesterday,  adv.,  ieri 

yet,  adv.,  and  — ,  eppure,  eppoi 

young,  adj.,  gipvane  (gipvine) 

your,  pass.,  vpstro,  suo 


INDEX. 


Heavy-faced  figures  refer  to  paragraphs. 


a,  masculine  noun  pi.,  p.  38,11.  1 ; 
feminines  in,  50,  56;  pi.  of 
masc.  o  nouns,  63,  64;  sign  of 
feminine  sing.,  42,  50;  use  of 
prep.,  211;  value  of,  5;  a,  ad, 
36  (a),  p.  123,  n.  3. 

ability,  idea  of,  rendered  by  §s- 
sere  bupno  a,  p.  64,  Rem. 

abstract  nouns,  44  (1),   51   (b), 

(1);  50  (3).  n-  3- 

accent,  31,  32,  33,  34,  35;  fall- 
ing on  stem  of  irr.  verb,  176; 
role  of,  in  irr.  vbs. ,  p.  1 17,  n.  1 . 

accentuation,  30;  of  words  to 
which  suffix  added,  p.  112,  n. 
4;  of  verbal  forms  com- 
pounded with  conj.  pron.,  p. 
76,  n.  2. 

acute  accent,  use  of,  33. 

ad  for  a,  36  (a). 

addpsso,  not  to  be  translated, 
p.  124,  n.  2. 

adjective,  44  (6) ;  agreement  of, 
108;  forms  of,  109;  used  as 
n.,  109,  Rem.  1 ;  aspron.,ioc, 
Rem.  2;  in  -lie,  formation 
adv.  from,  p.  157,  n.  3.;  irr., 
118;  place  of,  58,  129,  130, 
131,     132;      preceded    by    a, 


2ii  (4);  by  di,  212  (3);  by 
da,  213;  used  as  adv.,  238(a), 
p.  15S,  n.  1. 

adverbs,  classes  of,  236;  of  man- 
ner, 237,  238,  239,  240;  Oi 
place,  241,  242,  243;  of  de- 
gree and  comparison,  121,  122, 
125,  244;  of  affirmation  and 
negation,  245,  246;  of  time, 
247;  comparison  of,  248,  249; 
position  of,  250 ;  formation  of, 
of  manner,  237,  238,  239; 
from  -issimo  and  -frrimo  adj., 
249  (a);  adj.  sometimes,  128; 
form  absolute  superlative,  p. 
92,  n.  3;  modification  of,  163, 
p.  1 1 1,  n.  1. 

ai  in  dates,  p.  168,  n.  1. 

Alessandro  magno,  44  (2),  ex. 
(c)  and  n.  1. 

Alpe,  51  (1),  Rem. 

altri  added  to  noi,  voi,  92  (b). 

altrimenti,  237  (6). 

ambiguity  of  possessive  avoided, 

138. 

analytical  and  synthetic  com- 
parison, 120. 

an  dare  used  to  express  progres- 
sive action,  81  (1/)  (1);  to  ex- 
press duty.  81  (1),  (2). 

andarsene,  107. 

269 


270 


INDEX. 


-ando,  pres.  part,  in,  112. 

-ante,  pres.  part,  in,  in;  -ante 
for  -ando  in  pres.  part.,  p.  49, 
n.  1 ;  -ante,  -ente,  part,  in,  be- 
comes noun,  p.  146,  n.  1. 

antimeridiano,  a.m.  {ante  meri- 
diem), 256  (b). 

apposition,  nouns  in,  49  (2). 

arci-,  164. 

article,  repetition  of,  46;  def., 
with  superlative,  122  (a);  in- 
def.,  omitted  in  exclamation, 
157;  omitted  with  cejnto, 
mille,  etc.,  251  (c) ;  in  numeri- 
cal titles,  257. 

assimilation,  p.  25,  Rem.  2  (c). 

-astro,  with  adj.  of  color,  p.  112, 
n.  3. 

audacie,  p.  44,  n.  2. 

augmentative  suffixes,  167. 

auxiliary  verbs,   74;    tables  of, 

PP-  57-  58;  use  of>  76,  77; 
synopsis,  76,  77,  77  (a)  and  (b), 
78,  79,  80;  modal  aux.,  dovere, 
potere,  volere,  fare,  sapere,  as, 
82,  83;  lasciare  as,  83;  modal 
auxs.,  214;  auxiliary  reck- 
oned as  vb.,  235  (a). 
avere,  74;  in  description,  44  (7); 
verbs  compounding  with,  78, 
79  (a),  80;  translating  Eng- 
lish "to  be",  in  idioms,  84; 
avere  da,  84  (6);  irr.  of,  180 
(3);  past  part,  with,  113  (6), 
p.  84,  n.  1 ;  to  denote  age,  258. 

B 

b,  value  of,  12. 

back  vowels,  6. 

"both",  rendering  of,   251   (e), 

254.  P-  I09.  n-  4- 
bravo,interj.,asadj.,p.  170, n.  4. 


c,  value  of,  14.  15  (a),  16;  cc,  15, 
Rem.;  c  before  suffix.  124.  171 
(a). 

-ca,  adj.  in,  116  (2);  masculines 
in,  59;    feminines  in,  60. 

capitals,  use  of,  37. 

cardinal  numerals,  251;  em- 
ployed in  speaking  of  days  of 
month.  255  (c). 

-care,  vbs.  ending  in,  69  (1). 

Carlo  magno,  44  (2),  Ex.  (c)  and 
n.  1. 

c§n  for  cento,  251  (/). 

c§nto,  without  art.,  49  (4),  251 

(0- 

-cere,  vbs.  in,  70  (1). 

ch,  value  of,  16. 

characteristic  vowels  of  reg. 
vbs.  67,  68,  p.  51,  n.  2;  p.  52, 
n.  1. 

che,  rel.,  145,  146;  as  neuter, 
146  (a) ;  as  noun,  p.  104,  n.  1 ; 
inter.,  154;  in  comparison, 
126  (fr),p.  94,  n.  1;  che  non, 
127;  to  introduce  question 
implying  doubt,  p.   170,  n.  2. 

chi,  rel.,  145,  148;  chi-chi,  148 
(a);  inter.,  153. 

-chiare  vbs.,  69  (3). 

ci,  adv.  use  and  place  of,  242, 

243- 
-ciare  vbs.,  69  (2). 

ci9,  140. 

circumflex  accent,  use  of,  34. 

cl  instead  of  ch  in  learned  words, 

19(c);   exception,  p.  11. 
close  e,  5,  8;   representing  Latin 

e  and  1,  8;   rules  for,  9. 
close  0,  5,  8;  representing  Latin 

6  and  u,  8;   rules  for,  io,  n. 


INDEX. 


27  r 


-co,  masculines  in,  62;  adj.  in, 
116,  p.  44,  n.  3. 

collectives,  254. 

comparison  of  ad  j . ,  119;  degrees 
of,  119,  120;  of  equality,  121; 
of  superiority,  122,  123,  124; 
by  di  and  che,  126;  of  infe- 
riority, 125;  comparison  of  in- 
flected vbs.,  127;  of  adv.,  248, 
249. 

compound  tenses  of  vb.,  75,  76, 
77-  [180(4). 

compound  vbs.   irregularity  of, 

compounds,  syllabication  of,  29 
(0,Ex. 

compound  nouns,  53,  66. 

con  compounded  with  pronouns, 
92. 

conditional  formed  from  inf., 
175,  p.  116,  n.  6;  use  of,  230, 
p.  63,  n.  3. 

conditional  anterior  for  simple 
tense,  230  (b). 

conjunctions,  simple,  217;  sec- 
ondary, 218;  followed  by 
subj.,  219,  220,  233. 

conjunctive  pron.,  place  of,  99, 
pp.  76,  77;  table  of,  96,  98, 
99;  and  art.  replacing  poss., 
44  (8),  137  (2);  change  of 
form  of,  99  (b),  101;  agree- 
ment of  past  part,  with,  113 
(b),  114;    p.  85,  n.  2. 

consonants,  classification  of,  1 
(6);  tables  of,  pp.  2,  3;  value 
of,  12  seq. 

contraction,  36;  of  inf.,  174;  de- 
cided by  ear,  p.  30,  n.  1;  of 
past  part.,  p.  49,  n.  2;  of  3d 
pi.  fut.,  p.  50,  n.  3;  ofunonot 
indicated,  p.  28,  n.  2;  of  arti- 
cles with  prepositions,  43. 


correspondence  bet  wren   Italian 

and  English,  38. 
costui,  contemptuous  use  of,  139 

(2),  p.  102,  n.  3. 
cotesto,  use  of,   1  42. 
crossing  of  two  constructions,  p. 

95,  n.  1. 
cui,  145,  147,  p.  105,  n.  2;  p.  106, 

n.  1. 

D 

d,  value  of,  13. 

da  =  "as",49  (3);  avere  da,  84 
(b);  prep,  followed  by,  187; 
use  of,  213;    ="to",  215  (6). 

dabbene,  118  (e). 

dare,  irr.  of,  178  (6),  180  (1),  (2). 

days  of  week,  gender  of ,  51  (1). 

defective  vbs.,  181,  p.  54,  n.  3. 

definite  article,  forms  of,  40;  use 
of,  44,  45;  with  Madama, 
Madamigella,  p.  31,  n.  2;  used 
distributively,  44  (1);  in 
dates,  255;  in  expressions  of 
time,  256;  replacing  poss.,  44 
(8),  137  (1),  (2);  with  che, 
146  (a)  and  n.  1. 

dei  takes  gli,  p.  27,  n.  3. 

demonstratives  are  either  adj. 
or  pron.,  139;  forms  of,  139 
(1),  (2),  140;  remarks  on, 
141,  142,  143,  144;  com- 
pounded with  art.,  43;  art. 
with,  45  (3). 

di,  before  pcrs.  pron.  preceded 
by  prep.,  183;  prep,  followed 
by,  185,  186.  187  (a);  use  of, 
212;  omitted,  212  (1)  (a); 
after  vbs.,  212  (2),  p.  32,  Ex- 
ception (b);  ="on",  45  (7); 
after  adj.,  212  (3) ;  of  partitive, 
47,  48,  212  (4) ;  of  comparison, 


272 


INDEX. 


126  (a),  p.  95,  Rem.,  212  (5); 
in  adv.  expression,  212  (7). 

diacritic  signs,  35. 

-dico,  adj.  in,  124  (a). 

diminutives,  art.  used  with,  45 
(2),  Rem. 

diminutive  suffixes,  166. 

diphthongs,  28. 

dire,irr.  of,  178(6),  180  (1),  (3). 

disjunctive  pers.  pron,  85;  ta- 
ble of,  86;  use  of,  85,  87,  88, 
89,  90,  91,  92,  93,  95;  dis- 
junctive forms  used  where 
two  objects,  98  (5). 

doubling  of  initial  cons,  in  conj. 
pron.,  99  (b)  and  n. 

dropping  of  vowel,  99  (a);  be- 
fore suffixes,  171. 

dapppco,  118  (e). 

E 

e,  value  of,  5,  9;  c  and  g  before, 
J5  (a)>  (b) ;  gender  of  nouns 
ending  in,  51;  pi.  of  a  (fern.) 
nouns  in,  56;  sign  of  fem.  pi., 
42,  50;    of  masc.  pi.,  63,  64. 

ed  for  e,  36  (a). 

ei=egli,  p.  66,  n.  3. 

egli,  ella  used  of  both  persons 
and  things,  p.  67,  n.  2. 

eglino  seldom  used  in  modern 
Italian,  p.  66,  n.  5. 

elision,  36,  p.  73,  n.  3 ;  of  anche, 
che,  nemmeno,  neppure,  p. 
142,  n.  2. 

Ella,  Lei  =  "  you",  91. 

elleno  seldom  used  in  modern 
Italian,  p.  66,  n.  5. 

emotion,  subjunctive  of,  232  (2). 

endearment,  suffixes  of,  168. 

-ente,  for  end}  in  pres.  part.,  p. 
49,  n.  1;   pres.  part,  in,  in. 


-£rrimo,  adj.  in,  124. 

fssere,  conj.  of,  74;  as  aux.  of 
refl.  vbs.,  78,  103,  114;  irr.  of, 
173,  178  (b),  179,  180;  denot- 
ing duration  of  time,  259;  in 
expressions  of  time  of  day, 
83,  Rem.  1;  past  part,  with, 
113  (a),  114;  use  of,  77,  Rem. 
1  (p.  60);  vbs.  compounding 
with,  78,  79,  80;  vbs.  used  in- 
stead of,  81. 

esso,  essa,  used  of  both  persons 
and  things,  p.  67,  n.  2;  used 
redundantly  with  meco,  etc., 
92  (a). 

euphony  in  placing  adj.,  131 ;  in 
suffixes,  171  (b). 

-evole,  adj.  in,  124  (a). 


f,  value  of,  12;  for  ph  in  words 
of  Greek  origin,  p.  26,  Rem. 
3(b). 

fare,  conj.  pron.  with,  99  (p.  77), 
Rem.  (d);  irr.  of,  180  (1),  (2), 
(3);  use  of,  82,  83;  denoting 
duration  of  time,  259. 

feminine,  formation  of,  54;  nouns 
masc.  in  ending,  30  (2)  (a). 

-fico,  adj.  in,  124  (a). 

fino  used  with  a,  da,  and  in,  184 
and  n. 

fractions,  252  (b). 

front  vowels,  6. 

fu,  118  (d). 

future,  formed  from  inf.,  175,  p. 
116,  n.  6;   use  of,  229. 


g,  value  of,  14,  15  (b),  16; 
doubled,  15,  Rem.;  before 
suffix,  124,  171  (a). 


INDKX. 


7J 


-ga,  adj.  in,  116  (2). 

II 

h,  omission  of,  p.  26,  Rem.    2  (<i) ; 

in  -care  and  -gare   vbs.,     69; 

value  of,  16,  21,  27,  59. 
hundreds,   higher  numbers    not 

counted  by,  251  (d). 

I 

i,  c  before,  15  (a)  ;  for  y  in  words 
of  Greek  origin,  p.  26,  Rem. 
3  (a);  g  before,  15  (6);  gen- 
der of  nouns  ending  in,  51; 
pi.  of  nouns  ending  in,  57; 
prefixed  before  impure  s,  p. 
123,  n.  4;  sign  of  masculine 
plural,  42,  50;  to  indicate  pro- 
nunciation, 61,  69  (2),  70; 
value  of,  5,  22. 

-iare  vbs.,  69  (4). 

il  for  lo,  p.  72,  n.  1. 

ille,  forms  from,  p.  102,  n.  3. 

il  quale,  145;  distinguished  from 
cui,  147  (a). 

impari,  118  (a). 

imperative,  force  of  future,  229 
(3);   irr.,  180  (3);   use  of,    231. 

imperfect  tense,  73;  imperf.  ind. 
for  conditional,  230  (a). 

impersonal  vbs.,  181;  conj. 
pron.  with,    99,  Rem.    (a)    (p. 

76). 
in,  p.  32,  Ex.  (a);    denoting  end 

of   motion,    204    (2)    and     n.; 

with  credere,  p.  142,  n.  1. 
inchoatives,  Latin,  p.  50,  n.  6. 
indefinite  article,  forms  of,    41; 

syntax  of,  49. 
indefinites,    158,    159,    160,     161, 

162;     phrases    used    as,     160: 

subjunctive  with,  p.  1 10,  n.   2. 


infinitive,  conj.  pron.  with,  99, 
Rem.  (pp.  76,  77);  for  nega- 
tive imperative,  p.  51,  n.  4;  de- 
pendent, preceded  by  a,  211 
(2),  (3);  by  di,  212  (1);  with- 
out prep.,  214;  used  as  noun, 
art.  with,  44  (9);  English, 
rendered  by  subj.,  221  (e);  232 
(1);  rendering  Eng.  past  part., 
223. 

insieme  used  with  con  and  with 
a,  184  (a). 

interjections,  261. 

interrogatives,  forms  of,  152; 
used  in  exclamations,  157. 

interrogative  vb.,  72. 

-ire  vbs.,  taking  either  termina- 
tion, 71  (6),  71  (c);  that  do 
not  take  -isco  forms,  71(a). 

-io,  plural  of  nouns  in,  55,  Rem. 
2,  p.  44,  n.  1 ;   of  adj.  in,  117. 

irregular  verbs,  stem  of,  173; 
models  of,  177  (a),  (6);  con- 
struction of,  179. 

-isco  endings,  71. 

-issimo,  adj.  in,  124. 

iste,  forms  pron.,  p.  102,  n.  3. 
'  it,"  translation  of,  94  and  n. 


j,  semi-consonant,  table  p.  2,  p. 
6,  n.  1;  value  of,  23,  p.  44, 
n.  1. 

K 

k,  not  occurring  in  Italian  alpha- 
bets; pronunciation  of ,  3  (a). 


1,  value  of,  12. 

lasciare,    conj.    pron.    with,     99, 
Rem.  (e)  (p.  77). 


274 


INDEX. 


Latin  nouns  retain  gender,  p. 
38,11.  1. 

letters  of  alphabet,  3. 

li  for  il  in  dates,  p.  27,  n.  2,  p. 
168,  n.  1. 

lo,  neuter,  p.  73,  n.  5. 

locutions,  adverbial,  248;'  con- 
junctional, 218. 

loro,  art.  with,  135  (a);  conj., 
p.  72,  n.  4. 

M 

m,  value  <3f,  12. 
madama,  p.  31,  n.  2. 
madamig^lla,  p.  31;  n.  2. 
mago,  pi.  of,  p.  45,  Rem.  (1). 
manco  in  comparison,   125    and 

n.  1. 
mano,  50  (2),  (a),  55,  Rem.  (1). 
Maria  Vergine,   44  (2),    Ex.    (c) 

and  n.  2. 
masculine    nouns    feminine    in 

ending,  50  (2)  (6). 
me,  Lat.,  two  developments  of, 

p.  65,  n.  1. 
meco,  92. 
mfglio,  p.  91,  n.  1 ;  as  adj.  noun, 

p.  162,  n.  1. 
-mente  as  adv.  suffix,  237. 
mille  without  art.,  49  (4),  251  (c). 
molto,  128. 
monosyllables,    by   contraction, 

p.  6,  n.  3;    pi.  of,  57. 
multiplicatives,  253. 


N 


n,  value  of,  12,  17. 

names  of  cities,  of  continents,  of 
countries,  of  lakes,  of  rivers, 
of  seas,   44   (5);    of    days   of 


week,  def.  art.  with,  44  (11) 

(6);    of  months,  44  (12). 
ne  for  ci,  p.  72,  n.  2. 
near  relatives,  names  of,  45  (2). 
neuters-,  Latin,  p.  38,  n.  1. 
ng,  value  of,  17. 
n9  for  non,  246  (a). 
"nobody,"  rendering  of ,  161. 
non,  place  of,  246  (b);    without 

negative  value,   127,  246   (c). 
non  e  vero,  p.  70,  n.  3. 
nosco,  p.  69,  n.  2. 
"nothing,"  rendering  of ,  161. 
nouns  preceded  by  a,  211   (5); 

by  di,  212  (a);    in  apposition 

preceded  by  di,  212  (6). 
number,  39,  42,  55,  56,  57,    58, 

59,    60,    61,    62,    63,    64,     65; 

nouns  of,  251  (6). 

numerals,  44  (10),  251-261. 
numerical  idioms,  260. 

O 

o,  value  of,  5,  8;  diphthongized 
in  verbal  forms,  69  (5),  70  (3) ; 
dropped  in  questo  and  cotesto, 
141 ;  for  a  in  imperf.,  p.  50,  n. 
4;  open  o,  5,  8;  representing 
Latin  o  and  au,  8;  in  mono- 
syllables, 1 1 ;  sign  of  mascu- 
line singular,  42,  50. 

objective  forms  used  for  sub- 
jective, 95. 

od  for  0,  36  (a). 

ogni,  118  (a),  162. 

onde,  145,  149;  derivation  of,  p. 
107,  n.  1. 

-one,  167,  172  (a). 

-one,  -oni  as  adv.  suffix,  239. 

open  0.  5,  8. 

order  of  two  conj.  pron..  100. 


INDRX. 


ordinal  numbers,  252;  are  adj., 
252  (a);  in  numerical  titles, 
257;    with  names  of  rulers,  45 

(s).  _ 

-oso,  s  in  ending,  19  (/>). 

ou,  English,  replaced  by  0,  p.  25, 

Rem.  2  (6). 
oxytones,  pi.  of,  57. 


p,  value  of,  12;  initial  dropped 
in  words  of  Greek  origin,  p. 
26,  Rem.  3  (c). 

parecchi,  118  (c). 

pari,  118  (a). 

parimenti,  237  (b). 

participles,  agreement  of,  108, 
no;  pres.  part,  in  -ante, 
-ente,  -iente,  -ando,  -endo,  p. 
49,  n.,  in,  112;  become  n., 
p.  146,  n.  1. 

partitive,  47,  48,  136  (1). 

passive  avoided  by  use  of  si,  104 
(a);   by  use  of  inf.,  223  (a). 

passive  inf.  (Eng.)  rendered  by 
active  inf.,  223. 

past,  definite,  use  of,  228;  indefi- 
nite, use  of,  227. 

past  part.,  functions  of,  113; 
with  avere,  113  (6);  with 
§ssere,  113  (a);  with  ref.  vbs., 
103,  114;  irregularity  of,  178 
(a). 

P?ggio>  p.  91.  n-  1.  249- 

pejorative  suffixes,  169. 

pers.  pron.  preceded  by  di  after 

prep.,  183,  186. 
phrases,  adverbial,  128  (a);   set, 

136  (2);    used  as  indefinites, 

160. 
piu,    comparison    by   means   of 

122,  123  (a). 


plural  of  names  of  letters  of  al- 
phabet, 3  (./'). 

plural  nouns  altogether  irregu- 
lar, 65. 

poco,  128. 

pomeridiano  =  p.m.  (post  meridi- 
em), 256  (b). 

possessives,  agreement  of,  138; 
art.  with,  44  (6),  44  (8),  45. 
J34.  J35;  either  adj.  or  pron., 
133;  replaced  by  pronominal 
particles,  98  (2),  137  (2);  ta- 
ble of,  134;    use  of,  137. 

prefixes,  163,  164;  used  with 
vbs.,  p.  in,  n.  2. 

prepositions,  followed  by  a,  184; 
followed  by  di,  183,  185,  186, 
187  (a);  not  pure,  182  (a); 
place  of,  188;  simple,  182; 
modify  meaning  of  vbs.,  216; 
use  and  meaning,   189-210. 

pres.  part.,  as  noun,  in;    forms 

of,    in,    112;    never  used  as 

noun,   222;    (Eng.)  rendering 

'  inf.  used   as  a  noun,  221  (a), 

222. 

present  tense,  use  of,  225. 

preterite,  use  of,  228. 

price,  def.  art.  in  expressions  of, 

44  (11)  (a), 
progressive  action  expressed  by 

stare,  81   (a);    by    andare,  81 

(<i),  Rem.  1,  p.  60. 
pronominal  adverbs,  97,  98  (4). 
pronouns,  agreement  of,  89,  90; 

of  second  pers.,  91 ;   pers.,  85; 

omission  of,  p.  50,  n.  1,  88. 
pronunciation  of  Italian  vowels, 

7- 
proper  names,  44  (2). 

protasis  rendered  by  inf.,  224. 

provinces,  names  of,  44  (5). 


276 


INDEX. 


provincia,  p.  44,  n.  2. 
pseudonimo,  takes  lo,  p.  27,  n.  3. 
purity  of  Italian  vowels,  p.   4, 
n.  1. 


Q 


q,  value  of,  12,  p.  8,  n.  3. 

qualche,  118  (b),  p.  89,  n.  2,  162. 

qualcgsa,  gender  of,  50  (2)  (b). 

quale,  155. 

quanto,  121,  128,  156. 

quasimente,  237  (b). 

quegli,  139  (1),  0);  -"the  for- 
mer", 143. 

quello,  inflection  of,  141 ;  use  of, 
142;    =  "the  former  ",  143. 

qaesti  =  '  'the  latter  ",  143. 

questo,  use  of,  142,  143. 


R 


reciprocal  yds.,  103,  Rem.;  past 

part,  with,  114. 
recluta,  50  (1),  Exc. 
redundant  construction,  92  (a), 

95  (a),  98. 

reflexive  vbs.,  compound  with 
§ssere,  78,  103,  114;  past  part, 
with,  114;  possessive  with, 
I37  (2) ;   synopsis  of,  102,  106. 

relative,  indefinite,  subj.  after, 
232  (4)  (a). 

relative  clause,  rendered  by  inf., 
224;    subj.  in,  232  (4). 

relatives,  14 5-1 51;  always  ex- 
pressed in  Italian,  150* 

repetition  of  adv.  to  form  super- 
lative, 249  (c). 

rimanere  used  instead  of  §ssere 
to  form  passive,  81  (c). 


s,  19;   impure,  36  (6).  p.  27,  n.  1; 

adj.  before,  115  (b). 
santo,  forms  of,  115. 
sapere,  irr.  of,  178  (6),  180  (3). 
sc,  value  of,  20,  21. 
-sciare,  vbs.,  69  (2). 
se,  93- 

seco,  92  and  n. 
sentinella,  50  (1),  Exc. 
sentire,    conj..  pron.    with,    99, 

Rem.  (e)  (p.  77). 
sestina  not  a  collective,  p.   167, 

n.  3. 
sequence  of  tenses,  234,  235. 
si,      constructions      with,     104. 

105 

sieno  for  siano,  p.  57,  n.  1, 

sopra-,  164. 

sovra-,  164. 

spia,  50  (1),  Exc. 

stare,  irr.  of,  180  (1),  (2);    used 

to  express  progressive  action, 

81  (a). 
stare  per,  81  (a),  p.  141,11.  1. 
stem,   of  reg.   vbs.,   68;     of  irr. 

vbs.,    173,    178,   p.    116,  n.    2; 

stressed  stem,  176,  178  (d). 

stra-,  164. 

strong  vbs.,  p.  116,  n.  1. 

su,  182  (6);   followed  by  per,  187 

(b). 
subj.  imperf.  of  command,  231 

(a),  232. 
subj.  pres.  for  imperative,  p.  51, 

n.  5. 
subj.,  use  of,  232,  233. 
subordinate  clause,  subj.  in,  232 

(1). 
suffixes,    163,    165-172;     loss   of 

meaning  in,   170;    with  adv., 


INDEX. 


277 


163,  p.  in,  n.  1,  249  (a)  and 

(b). 

superlative,  subj.  after,  232  (3). 

sur  for  su,  36  (a). 

surnames,  44  (3). 
syllabication,  29. 
synthetic  forms,  123,  124. 

T 

t,  value  of,  13. 
tanto,  128. 
teco,  92. 
there    is",    rendering    of,   83, 
Rem.  2. 
titles,  44  (2),  135  (b). 
"  to  ",  rendering  of ,  211  (2),  212 
(1),  214,  215. 
tocco,  fori' una,  256  (a), 
triphthongs,  28. 
troppo,  128. 
truncation,  36. 
tu,  use  of,  91. 

two   forms   same   word,    p.    26, 
Rem.  (4). 


U 


u,  5;  accented,  followed  by  a 
vowel,  p.  10,  n.  1;  conso- 
nantal, 18;  Eng.  replaced  by 
o,  p.  25,  Rem.  2  (6);  nouns 
ending  in,  50  (3). 

udire,  conj.  pron.  with,  99,  Rem. 

0)  (p-  77)- 

uncertainty  expressed  by  condi- 
tional, 230  (2). 

unde,  form  from,  p.  107,  n.  r. 

uno,  -a,  251  (a);  noun  modified 
by  ventuno,  trentuno,  etc., 
251  (a). 


V 


v,  12;  ofimperf.  dropped,  p.  50, 

n.  5. 
vedere,    conj.    pron.    with,    99, 

Rem.  (e)  (p.  77). 
venire  used  instead  of  §ssere  to 

form  passive,  81  (6). 
verbal  noun,  221,  222. 
verbs,   reg.    conjugation   of,    67; 

table  of,  p.  49;  of  second  conj., 

p.  54,  n.  1  and  2. 
vi,  adv.  place  and  use  of,  242, 

243- 

vocative,  44  (2),  Exc.  (a),  45  (1). 

voi,  use  of,  91. 

voiced  consonants,  p.  1. 

voiced  s,  19. 

voiceless  consonants,  p.  1. 

voiceless  s,  19. 

volere,  irr.  of,  180  (3). 

vosco,  p.  69,  n.  2. 

vowel,  Italian  nouns  end  in,  p. 
25,  Rem.  (1),  p.  39,  n.  5. 

vowel,  su  before,  36  (a),  p.  123, 
n.  5. 

vowels,  classification  of,  1 ;  ta- 
ble, p.  2. 

W 

w,  not  occurring  in  Italian  al- 
phabet, 2;    pronunciation  of, 

3(a). 
weak  vbs.,  p.  116,  n.  1. 
"what",  rendering  of,  151,  154 

(a). 

X 

x,  not  occurring  in  Italian  al- 
phabet, 2;    pronunciation  of, 


278  INDEX. 

3  (a);  Eng.  c  or  s  replaces,  p.       "you",  rendering  of,  p.  50,  n.  2, 
25,  Rem.  (2)  (a).  91. 

Y  .  z 

y,  not  occurring  in  Italian  al- 
phabet, 2;    pronunciation  of,      z,  zz,  value  of,  26;    il  or  lo  be- 
3  (o).  fore>  P-  27,  n.  3. 


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